Ancient Egyptian funerary practices

The ancient Egyptians had special ways to prepare people for life after death, which they believed was very important. They thought these practices would help a person live forever.

One key part of their traditions was mummifying the body, which meant preserving it carefully so it could last a long time.

They also used magic spells to protect the person in the next world and placed special items called grave goods in the tomb. These items were things they thought the person might need in the afterlife, like food or tools.

Over many years, the exact way they did these things changed, but the main ideas stayed the same. Preparing the body, using magic, and putting grave goods in the tomb were all important parts of an Egyptian funeral.

History

Long ago, during the Predynastic period in Egypt, people believed it was important to keep bodies whole. This is why they buried their dead instead of burning them. Some thinkers think they may have worried bodies could come back to life if not treated right.

Early burials were in simple, shallow pits. People often placed a few items like jewelry, food, games, and tools nearby. Over time, graves became more complex. Bodies were sometimes placed in baskets, and later in wooden or clay coffins. The largest tombs were stone boxes called sarcophagi. These graves often held items such as jewelry, food, games, and sharp tools.

For a long time, from the Predynastic period through the Ptolemaic dynasty, people strongly believed in life after death. This belief shaped how they buried their dead. They placed items in tombs that they thought would be needed in the next world. The Egyptian beliefs in an afterlife became well known through trade and cultural sharing, especially through the Silk Road. Egyptians believed people could enter the afterlife if they had a purpose there. For example, kings were thought to be allowed in because of their role as rulers.

In early royal tombs, some people were treated badly and did not live because of the idea of serving a purpose in the afterlife. Later, figurines and wall paintings took the place of these people. Some of these figurines may have been made to look like certain people.

Not only the lower classes but also noble classes believed that kings, who became like gods after death, could help them have an afterlife. This belief lasted from the predynastic period through the Old Kingdom.

Although many spells from earlier texts were kept, the new Coffin Texts added new spells and changes. In the First Intermediate period, the importance of the king decreased. Funerary texts, once only for royalty, became more available to everyone. Kings were no longer seen as gods who alone could grant entry to the afterlife; instead, they were just rulers who, like others, would face death and move on.

Funerary rituals

See also: Dance in ancient Egypt § Funeral Dances

Greek historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus wrote about how ancient Egyptians cared for people after they died. Before preserving a person’s body, family and friends would show their sadness in special ways, sometimes by wearing mud on their faces and walking through the town.

After preserving the body, there were special ceremonies. People acted out stories from their beliefs. These stories included a tale about a god named Osiris. The ceremonies also included processions, where the body was carried to the tomb. Priests would perform rituals to help the person’s spirit in the next life.

A funeral procession depicted in the Book of the Dead (Extract from the Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, c. 1250 BCE)

Mummification

Main articles: Mummy § Mummification and rank, and List of Egyptian mummies

The ancient Egyptians believed that keeping a person’s body safe was important for their journey after death. They thought a part of the person, called the ka, would come back to the body if it was treated in a special way. This treatment was called mummification.

To prepare a body for the afterlife, priests used a natural salt called natron to dry it out. This could take up to seventy days. The body was treated and wrapped carefully. People could choose different ways to do this depending on what they could afford. The most common way involved cleaning the body, stuffing it with natron, and wrapping it in linen cloth with prayers and special scents.

Another simpler way of mummification used special oils and natron to keep the body safe. The least expensive way was to clean the body and use natron for seventy days before giving it back to the family.

Animals were also sometimes treated in a similar way. Pets were treated this way to honor them, and some animals were preserved for special reasons.

Burial rituals

After preparing the mummy, a priest would do a special ceremony called the opening of the mouth. This helped the mummy breathe and talk in the afterlife. The priest would say spells to help the mummy’s arms, legs, and other parts work.

An important person, like a king, would be taken to a special temple. There, more prayers and rituals were done to get them ready for their journey. The king's mummy was put inside a pyramid with food, drinks, furniture, clothes, and jewelry for the afterlife. The pyramid was then sealed, but the king's spirit could still move around. Kings were believed to become gods after death and could be honored in temples.

The ancient Egyptians thought that people who had passed away could still care about their living family. They believed special parts of a person, called the Ba and the Ka, let the dead help their family. Even regular people wanted their families to have a proper burial. Bodies were usually wrapped in cloth and buried in the desert with simple items for comfort in the afterlife. Most regular people could not afford mummification and were often buried in mass graves with just a few personal objects. These burial sites were found in many parts of the desert, some of which are now places where people live.

Tombs

The tomb was a special place for a person who had passed away. It helped protect them and let family and friends do special rituals to help them live forever. Ancient Egyptians built tombs very carefully.

Every tomb had two important parts: a burial chamber for the body and some special items, and a place where people could gather together.

Usually, tombs were built close to where the person lived, often in dry desert areas. Early tombs were simple pits in the sand, but later they became bigger and more complex. Over time, these simple pits turned into small mudbrick buildings called mastabas. For kings, these grew into huge step pyramids and then the famous pyramids we know today. These big pyramids helped protect the king's tomb and were also linked to beliefs about the sun god, Ra. Most tombs were built on the west side of the Nile River, which was thought to be the place where the dead rested. The place of the tomb depended on the person's importance, with important people buried closer to the king.

Coffins

Main article: Ancient Egyptian coffins

After preserving the body, the ancient Egyptians put it inside a wooden coffin. The coffins were painted and made just for each person. In the Old Kingdom, the coffins showed the person’s title and had special pictures to help them see.

In the Middle Kingdom, coffins were like tiny tombs. They had pictures of protective goddesses such as Isis and Nephthys. They also had images and prayers to help the person’s journey. Later, coffins were shaped like the body, with the person’s face painted on them. Sometimes, a large stone box called a sarcophagus was used to keep the coffin safe.

Damnation

The ancient Egyptians believed that special steps were needed to reach the afterlife. One important step was embalming the body correctly. They thought a force called the Ka would not return if the body was not prepared properly.

If these steps were not followed, they believed the person would face a very bad end. This was called "damnation." Instead of a peaceful afterlife with gods, they thought the person would face a place of chaos and struggle. This idea came from stories in books about the underworld.

Judgment

The ancient Egyptians believed that after someone died, they had to go through a special judgment to enter the afterlife. This idea is described in a book called the Book of the Dead.

In pictures, the judgment showed the person’s heart being weighed against a feather. A god named Osiris helped decide if the person was good. If they were good, their family and friends would celebrate.

Funerary texts

Main article: Ancient Egyptian funerary texts

Ancient Egyptians placed special books with magic spells in tombs to help people after death. These books had instructions and spells to guide and protect the person.

At first, only kings could use these spells, called the Pyramid Texts. They were written on pyramid walls to help the king live again.

Later, important people and rich families could use similar spells, called Coffin Texts. These were written on coffins.

Finally, these spells became known as the Book of the Dead. Wealthy people could have their own special book, while others used books made for many people, with spaces to add their names.

Burial goods

The items placed in tombs with ancient Egyptians changed over time, but they always had the same purpose: to help and protect the person in the afterlife.

From the start, all Egyptians were buried with some everyday things they might need after death, like bowls, combs, and food. Richer people could have jewelry, furniture, and other valuable items in their tombs.

Later, wealthy people were buried in wooden or stone coffins, and the number of items placed with them decreased. Sometimes only small copper models of tools and containers were included. Wooden models showing everyday activities became popular.

New items like small clay statues called shabtis and carved beetles called heart scarabs appeared later. These were thought to help protect the person or do work for them in the afterlife. By the time of Ramesses II, tombs often contained only special items made just for burial, and some tombs had many shabti statues and other protective figures.

Funerary boats

Funerary boats were used in some ancient Egyptian burials. Boats were important in Egyptian beliefs because they were thought to be how the gods traveled across the sky and to the netherworld. One kind of boat was used for trips to holy places like Abydos. A big funerary boat was found near a pyramid built for Khufu. These boats were usually made from wood and papyrus reeds tied together. The most common path for the boats was the River Nile. The boat carried the coffin and often included a dog, which they believed would guide the person to the afterlife. Most boats were about 20 feet long, but the boat for Khufu was much larger, about 144 feet with 12 oars.

At the Ure Museum, you can see an Egyptian funerary boat. This boat shows the idea that death was a journey by boat across the River Nile, connecting the North and South. The boat was added to the museum’s collection in 1923 from the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology.

The study of ancient Egyptian mummies today

By studying ancient Egyptian mummies, scientists and historians learn many facts about life in ancient Egypt. They use special tools like x-rays to look inside the mummies without hurting them. These tools help experts learn about diseases people had and how they were treated. By looking at the bones, scientists can also find out the average height and lifespan of people from that time.

Chemists study the materials used to preserve the mummies. Recently, they found different oils, waxes, and herbs in special mixtures. In 2019, an old embalming workshop was found at Saqqara, and in 2022, scientists looked at containers from that site. In 2023, they also studied materials from special jars from the time of the 18th Dynasty. These discoveries show that some ingredients came from places far outside of Egypt.

Depictions in modern culture

The book Pharaoh by Bolesław Prus, written in 1895, shows how people were prepared for burial and the customs used during funerals in ancient Egypt.