Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humanity. It looks at many parts of human life, such as human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics.

Social anthropology focuses on patterns of behavior, while cultural anthropology looks at the meanings behind cultural norms and values. Today, many people use the term sociocultural anthropology to describe this area. Linguistic anthropology studies how language shapes our social lives. Biological (or physical) anthropology examines the biology and evolution of humans and their close primate relatives.

Archaeology studies human activity by looking at physical remains. In North America and Asia, archaeology is usually seen as a part of anthropology. In Europe, it is sometimes considered its own subject or a part of related areas like history and palaeontology.

Etymology

The word anthropology comes from old Greek words. It began in Germany during the Renaissance. Writers like Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann made the word. They used two Greek words: ánthrōpos, meaning "human," and lógos, meaning "study." Aristotle had this idea long before. The word came into English in the early 1700s.

Origin and development of the term

Main article: History of anthropology

Through the 19th century

In 1647, early scholars at the University of Copenhagen described anthropology as the study of humans. They divided it into two parts: the body and the mind.

Later, scientists used the word anthropology more often. For example, in 1839, a scientist named Étienne Serres used it to study ancient human remains. Museums and groups dedicated to studying humans started forming all over the world.

The idea of comparing different groups of people helped scientists understand how humans developed. The work of Charles Darwin on how species change over time inspired many of these scientists.

20th and 21st centuries

By the end of the 19th century, anthropology had become a special area of study in schools and universities. It grew quickly in the 20th century, with many new departments forming around the world.

Two important researchers, Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski, helped shape how anthropology is studied today. They focused on comparing different cultures and spending long times living among the people they studied.

In the United States, anthropology is often divided into four main areas: the study of human biology, cultural studies, archaeology, and language studies. These areas sometimes overlap but use different methods to understand humans.

Fields

Further information: American anthropology

Anthropology is a big topic that studies humans in many ways. It mixes ideas from science, arts, and social studies. It looks at human biology, behavior, cultures, and societies, both now and long ago. This includes learning about early humans and how they affect our lives today.

Sociocultural anthropology combines the study of cultures and social groups. Cultural anthropology looks at how people understand the world and give meaning to their lives. Social anthropology studies how people and groups relate to each other. Both help us see how societies work and how people live together. They also look at family ties, how societies organize, and many parts of daily life.

Sociocultural

Main articles: Cultural anthropology, Social anthropology, and Sociocultural anthropology

Sociocultural anthropology brings together the study of cultures and social groups. Cultural anthropology looks at how people make sense of their world and each other. Social anthropology focuses on the relationships between people and groups. Both help us understand how societies are organized and how people live together. They study family ties, social structures, economies, politics, laws, customs, arts, and many other parts of life.

Biological

Main article: Biological anthropology

Biological anthropology studies humans and other primates from a biological view. It looks at how humans have changed over time and how they are different today. This includes studying human remains, genetics, and health. Subfields include studying fossils, teeth, and primates.

Archaeological

Main article: Archaeology

Archaeology studies the past by looking at things people left behind, like tools and buildings. Archaeologists examine these objects to learn about ancient societies and their lives. Ethnoarchaeology studies living groups to better understand past peoples.

Linguistic

Main article: Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology looks at how people communicate and how language relates to culture. It studies how language changes over time, how people use it in different ways, and how it connects to social life. This field uses methods from language study to understand human behavior and culture.

Ethnography

Main article: Ethnography

Ethnography is a way to study how people interact in their daily lives. It often involves watching and joining in community activities. Ethnographers learn about cultures by living among people and understanding their experiences.

Key topics by field: sociocultural

Art, media, music, dance, and film

Art

A big question in art is whether "art" means the same thing everywhere. Some researchers notice that words like "painting" don’t always match how other cultures see things. They study objects with beautiful qualities, even if not called "art." Books by Claude Lévi-Strauss and others help us learn what different cultures find beautiful.

Media

Main article: Media anthropology

Media anthropology studies how people make and watch media, like TV or newspapers, and how it affects their lives. Researchers study how news is made and how people react to it. This also includes cyber anthropology, studying the internet, and areas like social movements or health education. Classic studies look at how radio, the press, new media, and television became important.

Music

Main article: Ethnomusicology

Ethnomusicology studies music in different cultures. It looks at music’s role in society, its history, and how it connects to people’s lives. It became a formal field around 1950 thanks to Jaap Kunst. It led to journals and groups like the Society of Ethnomusicology.

Visual

Main article: Visual anthropology

Visual anthropology studies how people use pictures, films, and other visual ways to share culture. This includes photography, film, and new media. It also looks at performances, museums, and how people express themselves visually.

Economic, political, economic, applied, and development

Economic

Main article: Economic anthropology

Economic anthropology studies how people handle money and resources in many places and times. It often differs from traditional economics. It started with researchers like Bronisław Malinowski and Marcel Mauss who studied gift-giving. Today, it examines topics like corporations and the global financial system.

Political economy

Main article: Political economy in anthropology

Political economy in anthropology uses history to study societies, especially those without big governments. It looks at topics like hunter-gatherer societies, peasant life, and colonialism. Recently, it has also studied modern capitalism.

Applied

Main article: Applied anthropology

Applied anthropology uses anthropology ideas to solve real-world problems. It helps communities by studying their needs and finding ways to improve their lives. It is closely linked to development anthropology.

Development

Anthropology of development studies development projects carefully. It asks why poverty still grows even when the goal is to reduce it. It looks at why plans often fail and why outside groups often lead development.

Kinship, feminism, gender, and sexuality

Kinship

Main article: Kinship

Kinship studies family and relationships in different cultures. Anthropologists look at how families are formed, including blood ties and chosen families. They study how people are related by birth, called consanguinity, and by choice.

Feminist

Main article: Feminist anthropology

Feminist anthropology studies how gender and women’s roles are studied in anthropology. It aims to correct biases in research and includes the study of pregnancy and childbirth in different cultures.

Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive, and transpersonal

Medical

Main article: Medical anthropology

Medical anthropology studies health and disease across cultures. It looks at how different cultures understand health, how doctors and patients interact, and how health systems work together. It also studies how social and environmental factors affect health.

Nutritional

Main article: Nutritional anthropology

Nutritional anthropology studies how food, health, and economics connect. It looks at how changes in the economy and environment affect what people eat and their health.

Psychological

Main article: Psychological anthropology

Psychological anthropology studies how culture shapes the mind. It looks at how growing up in a culture affects thinking, feelings, and health.

Cognitive

Main article: Cognitive anthropology

Cognitive anthropology studies how people in different cultures understand the world. It uses ideas from psychology and biology to see how shared knowledge shapes how people think and act.

Transpersonal

Main article: Transpersonal anthropology

Transpersonal anthropology studies how people experience different states of mind and how culture influences these experiences. It looks at how myths, rituals, and other cultural practices affect these states.

Political and legal

Political

Main article: Political anthropology

Political anthropology studies how societies are organized politically. It looks at both simple and complex societies, including how governments and informal groups interact.

Legal

Main article: Legal anthropology

Legal anthropology studies how different cultures handle rules and justice. It looks at how people solve problems, respect rights, and organize their lives without formal laws.

Public

Main article: Public anthropology

Public anthropology aims to use anthropology to solve big social problems and encourage public discussions to create change.

Nature, science, and technology

Cyborg

Main article: Cyborg anthropology

Cyborg anthropology studies how humans and technology interact. It looks at how modern technology changes what it means to be human.

Digital

Main article: Digital anthropology

Digital anthropology studies how people and digital technology interact. It includes studying online communities, virtual worlds, and how technology affects culture.

Ecological

Main article: Ecological anthropology

Ecological anthropology studies how humans adapt to their environments. It looks at how culture and nature influence each other and how people manage resources.

Environment

Social sciences like anthropology help us understand environmental issues. Anthropology looks at how different cultures interact with their environments and how human activity changes the planet.

Historical

Main article: Ethnohistory

See also: Historical anthropology

Ethnohistory studies cultures and traditions by looking at historical records. It uses documents, maps, art, and oral histories to understand how groups lived in the past.

Religion

The anthropology of religion studies how religions work in different cultures. It looks at how religious beliefs and practices are part of everyday life and how they connect to other parts of society.

Urban

Main article: Urban anthropology

Urban anthropology studies cities and urban life. It looks at how people live in cities, the problems they face, and how cities change over time.

Key topics by field: archaeological and biological

Main articles: Archaeological and Biological anthropology

Main article: Anthrozoology

Anthrozoology studies how humans and animals interact. It looks at how humans and animals help each other and how they behave together. It uses ideas from biology, psychology, and medicine.

Main article: Biocultural anthropology

Biocultural anthropology looks at how human biology and culture are connected. It studies how culture affects human biology.

Main article: Evolutionary anthropology

Evolutionary anthropology studies how humans have changed over time in their bodies and behavior. It looks at how humans evolved from earlier species. This field uses ideas from archaeology, psychology, and genetics.

Main article: Forensic anthropology

Forensic anthropology uses the study of human bones to help solve crimes. It helps identify people whose remains are broken or hard to recognize.

Main article: Palaeoanthropology

Palaeoanthropology is the study of ancient humans using fossils like bones and footprints. By studying these remains, scientists learn about how early humans lived and what they ate. The shape and marks on these fossils give clues about life in the past.

Organizations

Anthropology is studied at many universities and colleges around the world. The biggest group for people who study anthropology is the American Anthropological Association, which started in 1903. It includes anthropologists from many countries.

In 1989, some scholars from Europe and America created the European Association of Social Anthropologists. This group helps support anthropology in Europe and shares ideas from all over the world.

There are many other groups for anthropologists, sometimes organized by country or area. Anthropologists often work with experts from other fields like geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, and sociology.

List of major organizations

Main category: Anthropology organizations

• American Anthropological Association
• American Ethnological Society
• Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR
• Anthropological Society of London
• Center for World Indigenous Studies
• Ethnological Society of London
• European Association of Social Anthropologists
• Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
• Network of Concerned Anthropologists
• N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology
• Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
• Society for Anthropological Sciences
• Society for Applied Anthropology
• USC Center for Visual Anthropology

Ethics

As anthropology has grown, it has created rules to protect the people studied and the researchers. These rules help make sure everyone is treated fairly and with respect.

Anthropologists have sometimes worked with governments, which has caused debates about what is right. Today, anthropologists try to understand all cultures without judging them. They also study serious issues like unfair treatment, aiming to learn more about why these things happen.

Post-World War II developments

Before WWII, two main ways of studying people existed: one from Britain and one from America. After the war, these two ways started to mix more, creating a shared approach called sociocultural anthropology.

Anthropology studies many parts of human life using careful methods. Researchers often spend time studying one place or topic closely. They also look at how humans have changed over time and how different groups live. This helps them understand important ideas about human behavior and culture.