Carolingian Empire

The Carolingian Empire (800–887) was a Frankish-led empire in Western and Central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty. They had been kings of the Franks since 751 and kings of the Lombards in Italy from 774.

In 800, Pope Leo III crowned King Charlemagne as Roman emperor. This was to protect the Pope, even though the Byzantine Empire was weaker at the time. The Carolingian Empire is sometimes seen as the start of the Holy Roman Empire.

After the death of Emperor Louis the Pious, a civil war from 840 to 843 happened. The empire was split into separate kingdoms. One king was still called emperor but had little power outside his own land. In 884, Charles the Fat brought all the Carolingian lands together again. But in 887, the Frankish nobles removed him, and the empire broke apart.

The empire had about 10 to 20 million people. Its main area was Francia, between the Loire and the Rhine rivers, where the city of Aachen was. The empire reached from the Pyrenees in the south to the lands of the kingdom of the Danes in the north. It also stretched from Brittany in the west to the lands of the Slavs and the Avars in the east.

Nomenclature

The term "Carolingian Empire" is a name used by people today. It was not used by people who lived back then. Official documents in the empire were written in Latin. The empire had different names at the time. One name was universum regnum, meaning "the whole kingdom." Another name was Romanum imperium, or "Roman empire." There was also a name, Romanorum sive Francorum imperium, meaning "empire of the Romans and Franks." This explains why historians sometimes call it the Franko-Roman Empire or Frankish-Roman Empire. Another name used was Imperium Christianum, meaning "Christian empire."

History

Rise of the Carolingians (732–768)

Charles Martel ruled much of what is now Western Europe north of the Pyrenees. He defended Europe against a Muslim army at the Battle of Tours in 732. His son Pepin III became king with help from the pope. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, began ruling in 768.

Reign of Charlemagne (768–814)

The Carolingian Empire grew under Charlemagne to cover most of Western Europe. He was crowned Roman Emperor in 800 by the pope. Charlemagne fought many battles to expand his empire, including wars against the Lombards and the Avars. Before he died, he divided the empire among his family.

Reign of Louis the Pious and Civil War (814–843)

Louis the Pious, Charlemagne’s son, became emperor. His reign had family conflicts and civil wars. In 843, his sons signed the Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire into three parts.

After the Treaty of Verdun (843–877)

After 843, the empire was split between Louis the Pious’ sons. One son, Lothar, kept the title of emperor but his kingdom was later divided among his own sons. The empire continued to split and change hands through wars and family disputes.

Decline and division (877–888)

In later years, the Carolingian Empire faced attacks from Viking raiders and internal struggles. The empire continued to break apart, with different parts ruled by various leaders.

Demographics

Historians do not know exactly how many people lived in towns during the Carolingian Empire. Most cities probably had fewer than 25,000 people, about the same size as Rome at that time. The total number of people in the empire grew from about 750 to 850, but these numbers are only guesses.

The empire was home to many different groups of people, including Franks, Alemanni, Bavarians, Thuringians, Frisians, Lombards, Goths, Romans, Celts, Basques, and Slavs. These groups kept their own traditions, which sometimes affected laws and government.

Some studies of climate from places like the Greenland ice core show that the early years of the empire had nice weather, but later years had some very cold winters. It is not clear how much this changed the number of people.

Government

The government of the Carolingian Empire was developed by Charlemagne around the year 800. Charlemagne became emperor in 800 and changed his royal administration to match his new role. These changes greatly influenced Western Europe during the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements to older ways of governing are praised for better control, creating an efficient system, and sparking a cultural revival.

The Carolingian Empire was the largest western land since the fall of Rome, but historians wonder how much control the emperor really had. Legally, the Carolingian emperor had the bannum, the right to rule and command, over all his lands. He also had the highest power in legal matters, could make laws, led the army, and protected the Church and the poor. His administration aimed to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, but its success depended on the loyalty of his subjects.

Military

Frankish forces often went on campaigns nearly every year between the rise of Charles Martel and the end of the wars with the Saxons. Charlemagne usually gathered an army around Easter and launched military efforts through the summer. Soldiers had to bring their own weapons. Provisions were carefully managed.

Preference was given to quick warfare instead of building strong defenses. Captured fortresses were often destroyed to prevent future trouble. After 800, under Louis the Pious, military efforts became more defensive, responding to outside threats.

Palaces

No permanent capital city existed in the empire; the court traveled frequently. However, some palaces stood out as centers of administration. In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen and began building the Palace of Aachen in the 780s. The palace chapel, built in 796, later became Aachen Cathedral. During the 790s, as construction progressed at Aachen, Charlemagne's court became more centered there. Though Aachen was not meant to be a fixed capital, it was built in the heart of Charlemagne's realm to serve as a meeting place for nobles and church leaders.

Household

The royal household traveled around the kingdom, ensuring good government in local areas. The most important roles were the chaplain, who handled all church matters, and the count of the palace, who controlled the household. Other important positions included the chamberlain, seneschal, and marshal.

Officials

Three main offices enforced Carolingian authority locally:

The Comes (count). Appointed by Charles to manage a county. Counts were responsible for justice, enforcing laws, collecting soldiers, receiving taxes, and maintaining roads and bridges.

The Missi Dominici (dominical emissaries). They were sent out in pairs, one a church leader and one a secular official. They traveled four times a year in their local area to spread the king's will, judge cases, and sometimes raise armies.

The Vassi Dominici. These were the king's vassals, usually sons of powerful men, holding land and serving in the royal army.

Legal system

Maintaining and reforming the legal system was very important to the Carolingian Empire, especially to Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. The legal structure was based on the idea of multiple laws, meaning different groups in the empire were tried under their own laws. Written law codes for different groups were called the leges barbarorum. Some groups relied on oral traditions, but Charlemagne wanted these written down.

Basic justice was handled at public meetings called the mallus, led by the count. The count was helped by local leaders acting as a jury.

Coinage

Charlemagne regulated silver coinage, controlling its makeup and value. The emperor's name appeared on coins. Charlemagne suppressed mints in northern Germany and designed coins to look like old Roman coins.

Subdivision

The Frankish kingdom was divided into three areas for easier management. The inner "core" included Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy. Outside this were the regna, where Frankish rule relied on counts. Farther out were marcher areas ruled by powerful governors.

Charles also created sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin. Bavaria was managed by an autonomous governor until his death in 796.

Placitum generalis

The annual meeting, the placitum generalis or Marchfield, was held every year between March and May at a place chosen by the king. It had three purposes: to gather the army for campaigns, to discuss political and church matters, and to make laws. All important men had to attend.

Oaths

Oaths of loyalty helped Charles keep the support of his subjects. In 779, he banned sworn groups between other men so everyone would only swear loyalty to him. In 789, he required everyone to swear fidelity to him as king. In 802, he expanded this, requiring all men over 12 to swear loyalty to him.

Capitularies

Capitularies were written records of decisions made by Carolingian kings with their assemblies in the 8th and 9th centuries. The term comes from the Latin 'capitula' meaning 'chapters'. They covered many topics, including royal orders, instructions for officials, and changes to laws.

Some important capitularies from Charlemagne's rule include:

• The Capitulary of Herstal of 779, covering church and state topics.
• Admonitio Generalis of 789, with over 80 chapters on religion and laws.
• The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794.
• The Programmatic Capitulary of 802.
• The Capitulary for the Jews of 814, setting rules for Jewish commerce.

Religion and the Church

Main article: Carolingian church

Charlemagne wanted everyone in his kingdom to become Christian. He thought this would help his empire grow and spread the Christian faith. He made new rules to help priests learn to read and write. Bishops and abbots helped lead the empire, all working together under Charlemagne.

Many people thought the year 800 was special. They believed it might be an important year. Charlemagne became emperor on Christmas Day that year, and this made many feel it was a new and exciting time.

Emperors

For other Carolingian kings, see List of Frankish kings. For the later emperors, see Holy Roman Emperor.

The Carolingian Empire was ruled by a family called the Carolingians. They controlled large parts of Europe in the early Middle Ages. One of the most famous rulers was Charlemagne. He was crowned emperor by the Pope in the year 800. This ceremony showed the close relationship between the Church and the rulers of that time.

Legacy

The Carolingian Empire did not last long, but it had an important effect on history. Many people think it began what we now call feudalism, where local lords had much power. Leaders who came after Charlemagne, like the Ottonian dynasty, often looked to him for ideas. They even crowned themselves in the same palace where Charlemagne was crowned, hoping to connect to his good name.

Charlemagne became a symbol for later rulers. He was seen as an ideal leader and a brave knight. His story inspired people long after his empire ended.