Crimean War

Crimean War

The Crimean War was a big war fought between the Russian Empire and a group of countries including the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. It lasted from October 1853 to February 1856.

The war started because of arguments between France and Russia about who should protect Christian minorities in Palestine. When talks failed, Russia moved troops near the Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans declared war. Britain and France joined later to stop Russia from becoming too powerful.

Fighting happened in many places, but the most important events were in Crimea. The allied forces tried to capture Russia’s big naval base at Sevastopol. After some battles, the war turned into a long siege where soldiers faced very hard conditions. The war ended with a treaty in 1856 that limited Russia’s navy in the Black Sea.

The Crimean War was important because it showed how new inventions like railways, telegraphs, and new weapons changed battles. It was also one of the first wars to be widely written about and photographed. The war helped improve medical care because of the work of Florence Nightingale, who introduced better ways to care for sick and wounded soldiers. For Russia, the war was a setback that led to important changes in their country, including the end of serfdom in Russia.

Eastern question

Main article: Eastern question

When the Ottoman Empire got weaker in the 1800s, Russia wanted more land to the south. This made Britain and France nervous because they were friends with the Ottoman Empire and did not want Russia to become too powerful. The Crimean War started because these countries were worried about each other, not because they were being unfair on purpose. Each country had its own reasons for fighting, and they wanted to protect what was important to them.

Background

Weakening of the Ottoman Empire: 1820–1840s

In the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire had many problems. The Serbian Revolution in 1804 made the first Balkan Christian nation free. The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and showed the empire was weak. France took control of Algeria in 1830, a place that had been ruled by the Ottomans. In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt said he was no longer ruled by the Ottoman Empire.

Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in 1833. This made them allies and helped Russia protect its interests. By 1841, the London Straits Convention was signed, changing the rules about who could use the Black Sea straits.

Russian expansionism

Russia wanted to grow south to reach warm water ports in the Black Sea. This brought Russia into conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Russia said it wanted to protect Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule, but Britain wanted to keep the Ottoman Empire strong to balance power in Europe.

Immediate causes of war

The Crimean War began because of a fight between France and Russia over Christian holy places in Palestine. France, led by Napoleon III, wanted more influence and claimed control of these sites. Russia did not agree and sent soldiers to the Danube River, threatening lands ruled by the Ottomans. This made Britain and France support the Ottoman Empire, leading to the Crimean War.

First hostilities

In February 1853, the British government chose a new ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. After that, Russian forces moved into areas controlled by the Ottomans. Many soldiers became sick, and most deaths were from illness rather than fighting.

The Battle of Sinop was a key fight where a smaller Russian navy attacked a larger Ottoman fleet in a harbor. The Ottoman ships were mostly destroyed, and this event helped the United Kingdom and France decide to join the war against Russia.

Britain and France were worried about Russian plans, so they built defenses near the Dardanelles to stop Russia from moving further. They also tried to make peace, but Russia did not agree to their terms, so the war continued.

Main article: Battle of Sinop

Battles

Map of Crimean War, year 1853

Map of Crimean War, year 1854

Map of Crimean War, year 1855

Danube campaign

See also: Wallachian Revolution of 1848, Moldavian Revolution of 1848, and Convention of Balta Liman

Russian forces moved into areas along the Danube River in 1853. The Ottoman Empire sent troops to the river to stop them. Austria worried about this but decided to stay out of the war.

After the war started, Ottoman forces crossed the Danube and fought the Russians. They pushed the Russians back in several battles. Later, the Russians tried to move forward but were stopped. By mid-1854, the Russians had to leave some areas because Austria threatened them.

Black Sea theatre

Naval battles began in 1853 between Russian and Ottoman ships. A big battle happened when a Russian fleet destroyed an Ottoman group of ships at Sinop. This made Britain and France angry, so they sent their fleets to help the Ottomans and block Russian ships. The main Russian port of Sevastopol was surrounded, and Russian ships were sunk to keep them from being captured.

Crimean campaign

The Crimean campaign started in 1854. Allied forces landed on the Crimean peninsula and moved toward the city of Sevastopol. They fought and won the Battle of the Alma against the Russians. The allies then surrounded Sevastopol and began a long siege.

Battle of Balaclava

A big battle happened at Balaclava in 1854. Russian cavalry attacked the allied supply base but were stopped by British and French soldiers. One famous moment was when British soldiers stood in a line to stop the cavalry, called the "Thin Red Line." Later, a mistake in orders led to a famous cavalry charge by British soldiers, known as the Charge of the Light Brigade.

Winter of 1854–1855

Winter made fighting very hard. Storms and bad weather caused problems for the soldiers and their supplies. Roads became muddy, and troops suffered from cold and sickness.

Siege of Sevastopol

The siege of Sevastopol lasted from 1854 to 1855. Allies kept attacking the city’s defenses. After many battles, the city finally fell in September 1855 after a long siege.

Azov campaign

In 1855, allied ships entered the Azov Sea to attack Russian supply lines. They destroyed buildings and stopped food from reaching Russian soldiers in Sevastopol.

Caucasus theatre

Fighting also happened in the Caucasus region. Battles took place between Russian and Ottoman forces. The city of Kars was surrounded and finally surrendered to Russian forces in late 1855.

Baltic theatre

See also: Charles John Napier § Baltic Campaign, and Åland War

Allied fleets entered the Baltic Sea to challenge Russian forces. They attacked Russian ships and ports but faced strong defenses. The allies tried to block Russian trade and stop Russian troops from being sent to other areas.

White Sea theatre

British ships tried to attack the port of Archangel but were stopped by Russian defenses. Another attack on the town of Kola succeeded, and the town was destroyed.

Pacific theatre

Main article: Siege of Petropavlovsk

Fighting also happened in the Far East. Allied ships attacked the Russian port of Petropavlovsk but were driven back. Later attempts were also unsuccessful.

Piedmontese involvement

The Kingdom of Sardinia sent soldiers to fight with the French and British. Their bravery helped them gain attention at the peace talks after the war.

Greece

Main article: Greek Volunteer Legion

Greece tried to take advantage of the war but was stopped by Britain and France, who occupied a main port. Greek forces could not gain any territory and were not invited to the peace talks.

Kiev Cossack revolt

A revolt by peasants began in Kiev in 1855. They refused to follow orders and sometimes attacked local leaders. The revolt spread but was eventually stopped.

End of the war

People in Britain and other countries were unhappy with how the war was being handled. This unhappiness grew after events like the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Battle of Balaclava. On January 21, 1855, a protest happened in Trafalgar Square near St Martin-in-the-Fields. People threw snowballs to show they were against the war. When police tried to stop them, the snowballs were thrown at the police too. The protest ended when soldiers and police used truncheons.

In Parliament, leaders asked for a full report on all the soldiers, cavalry, and sailors sent to Crimea and the number of losses during the war. When Parliament voted to investigate, the leader of the government, Aberdeen, stepped down as prime minister. Lord Palmerston became the new leader. He wanted to continue the war and make sure Russia could no longer threaten Europe. Sweden–Norway and Prussia were ready to join Britain and France.

France, which had sent many soldiers and lost many people, wanted the war to end. Peace talks began in Paris in February 1856 and went smoothly. The peace talks at the Congress of Paris led to the Treaty of Paris being signed on March 30, 1856. Russia had to give back land they held in the Ottoman Empire and return Southern Bessarabia to Moldavia. The treaty said that Britain, France, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire had to return areas they had taken from Russia. Both the Tsar of Russia and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire agreed not to build any navy or military bases on the Black Sea coast. The areas of Moldavia and Wallachia were officially given back to the Ottoman Empire but were allowed to govern themselves. The Treaty of Paris allowed the Ottoman Empire to join the group of major European powers.

After the war, some people in Russia felt that their defeat showed they needed to change and improve their society. Grand Duke Constantine, a son of the Tsar, said they needed to admit they were weaker and poorer than other powers.

Long-term effects

Main article: Treaty of Paris (1856)

The Crimean War changed many countries. Russia learned it needed to improve its military and build better roads and railways. The war also hurt Russia’s pride because many people thought their country was the strongest, but now it seemed weaker.

After the war, France and Russia started to get along better. This helped both countries. Later, when Prussia fought France, Russia was allowed to change some rules about its navy.

The war also affected the Ottoman Empire. It ran out of money and had to borrow a lot, which caused problems for many years. Austria, which did not fight much in the war, lost friends and power, making its situation harder.

The Crimean War showed that many countries needed to change and work together in new ways, which helped shape what would happen in Europe for many years to come.

Documentation

William Howard Russell wrote about the war for The Times newspaper, and Roger Fenton took photographs. People learned about the war quickly. After the French set up a telegraph near the Black Sea in 1854, news could reach London in two days. By April 1855, news arrived in just a few hours. These reports helped change people's opinions and even the government in Britain.

Leo Tolstoy wrote short stories about the Siege of Sevastopol, called Sevastopol Sketches. His work showed everyday life for soldiers and citizens during the siege, and some consider him the first war correspondent.

Criticisms and reform

After the Crimean War, many people in Britain were unhappy. They had supported the war at first, but later saw many problems. The war showed big mistakes in planning and caring for soldiers. Newspapers asked for big changes, but real reforms took a long time.

Important advances happened during the war, like better ways to treat injuries and the use of new technology such as railways and the telegraph. These changes helped improve how wars were fought and reported in the future.

Chronology of major battles of the war

• Battle of Sinop, 30 November 1853
• Siege of Silistra, 5 April – 25 June 1854
• First Battle of Bomarsund, 21 June 1854
• Second Battle of Bomarsund, 15 August 1854
• Siege of Petropavlovsk, 30–31 August 1854, on the Pacific coast
• Battle of the Alma, 20 September 1854
• Siege of Sevastopol, 25 September 1854 to 8 September 1855
• Battle of Balaclava, 25 October 1854 (see also Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line)
• Battle of Inkerman, 5 November 1854
• Battle of Eupatoria, 17 February 1855
• Battle of the Chernaya (aka "Battle of Traktir Bridge"), 16 August 1855
• Battle of Kinburn (1855), 17 October 1855
• Sea of Azov naval campaign, May to November 1855
• Siege of Kars, June to 28 November 1855