Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador, military leader, explorer, and writer. He lived from around 1485 until 1547. He is best known for leading an expedition that ended the Aztec Empire in the early 1500s. His actions brought large parts of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile.

He was born in Medellín, Spain. Cortés came from a family of lesser nobility. He wanted adventure and riches, so he went to the New World. He first went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba. In 1519, he was chosen to lead an expedition to mainland Mexico. He partly paid for it himself.

Cortés used clever strategies, like making friends with some native people. He also had help from Doña Marina, a native woman who translated for him. After facing many problems, including orders to go back to Cuba, Cortés succeeded in ending the powerful Aztec Empire. For his success, he was later given the title of marqués del Valle de Oaxaca. He returned to Spain in 1541 and died there six years later from natural causes.

Name

Hernán Cortés called himself Hernando Cortés in his writings. For a long time, people spelled his first name as "Hernando" or "Fernando". A famous book from 1843 by William H. Prescott used the name Hernando Cortés. Today, most books use "Hernán".

Physical appearance

There are a few known portraits of Hernán Cortés from when he was older, but only copies of them exist today. One description of how he looked comes from Bernal Díaz del Castillo. He said Cortés was strong and sturdy, with a serious-looking gray face, a thin black beard and hair, and a lean body with a tall chest and nice-shaped back.

Early life

Hernán Cortés was born around 1485 in the town of Medellín in Extremadura, part of the Kingdom of Castile. His father, Martín Cortés, was a nobleman with limited wealth, and his mother was Catalína Pizarro. Through his mother, Cortés was a distant relative of Francisco Pizzaro, who later conquered the Inca Empire.

As a young boy, Cortés was pale and often sick. He studied Latin in Salamanca for two years and later worked as a notary in Hispaniola. During this time, he learned the laws of Castile, which later helped him during his adventures. By his teens, he felt restless in his small town and was eager to explore new places after hearing about Christopher Columbus’s discoveries in the New World.

Early career in the New World

Hernán Cortés planned to sail to the Americas with a relative, Nicolás de Ovando, the Governor of Hispaniola. An injury stopped him at first. After staying in southern Spain, he reached Hispaniola in 1504. There, he became a citizen of Santo Domingo. He farmed land and helped conquer Hispaniola and Cuba.

In 1511, Cortés joined an expedition to conquer Cuba led by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar. Velázquez later became the Governor of Cuba. He gave Cortés important jobs, like secretary and judge in Santiago. Over time, Cortés gained wealth and influence. He owned land and managed workers. Finally, he was chosen to lead an expedition to Mexico.

Conquest of Aztec Empire (1519–1521)

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

In 1518, Hernán Cortés led a group to explore parts of Mexico for Spain. He sailed in 1519 with about 500 men. He landed on the Yucatán Peninsula and met Geronimo de Aguilar, who could help translate.

Cortés moved toward the Aztec Empire. He made friends with local groups who did not like Aztec rule. In November 1519, he entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, and met the ruler, Moctezuma II.

Problems grew between Cortés and the Aztecs. Cortés and his men had to leave the city. After getting more help, Cortés returned. After a long fight, the city fell in 1521. This ended the Aztec Empire and gave Spain control of Mexico.

Appointment to the governorship of New Spain and internal dissensions

Hernán Cortés was chosen by King Charles to be the governor, captain general, and chief justice of the new land called New Spain. Four royal officials were also chosen to help him, but Cortés did not like this. He started building what would become Mexico City, using old Aztec buildings as a base.

Cortés helped create new cities and spread Spanish rule across New Spain. In 1524, he started the encomienda system, giving land and control to himself and his friends. This upset others who came later and felt left out. Cortés also had trouble when another army, led by Francisco de Garay, came to settle in northern Mexico. Cortés asked the king for help, and the king stopped Garay’s plans, choosing to support Cortés instead.

Royal grant of arms (1525)

Hernán Cortés received a special coat of arms from the Spanish king for his conquest of Mexico. This coat of arms was a symbol of honor for Cortés and his family.

The coat of arms had a shield divided into four parts. One part showed an eagle for the empire. Another showed a lion to remind us of Cortés's hard work. The other two parts showed symbols from the Aztec Empire, including three Aztec emperors Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and Cuauhtemoc, and the capital city of Tenochtitlan. Around the shield were symbols of the city-states Cortés defeated.

Death of his first wife and remarriage

Hernán Cortés' first wife, Catalina Súarez, came to New Spain around 1522. Their marriage was difficult because Catalina was not of noble status, and they had no children. Catalina died in 1522, and an investigation followed.

In 1529, Cortés married a noblewoman named Doña Juana de Zúñiga. This marriage raised his status, and they had three children together. His son Martín Cortés became his legitimate heir.

Cortés and the "Spiritual Conquest" of the Aztec Empire

When Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire, he wanted to bring Christianity to the local people. He asked the Spanish king to send religious leaders, called friars, from the Franciscan and Dominican orders to Mexico. These friars were supposed to help change the local people's beliefs to Christianity.

In 1524, twelve Franciscans arrived in Mexico. They were led by Fray Martín de Valencia. Some stories say that Cortés showed respect to these friars by kneeling before them. This showed that even though he had a lot of power, he knew religious leaders were important. The Franciscans and Cortés worked together, and some people even said he helped spread the Christian faith.

Expedition to Honduras and aftermath (1524–1541)

See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatán § Hernán Cortés in the Maya lowlands, 1524–25; Spanish conquest of Honduras; Spanish conquest of Guatemala § Cortés in Petén; and Spanish conquest of Petén § Cortés in Petén

From 1524 to 1526, Hernán Cortés led a journey to Honduras. He defeated a man named Cristóbal de Olid, who had taken control there. Cortés brought Cuauhtémoc, a past Aztec leader, with him, but Cuauhtémoc passed away during the trip. Cortés later tried to arrest the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, for helping Olid. This caused trouble with the Spanish king.

Cortés went back to Spain in 1528. King Charles V gave him the title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and other rewards. Though he kept some land and rights, Cortés was not made governor again. When he returned to Mexico in 1530, a new leader named Antonio de Mendoza was now in charge. Cortés spent his later years building his home and looking at new places, including parts of the Pacific coast.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After exploring Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541. He faced many lawsuits from people who were upset with what he had done. When he spoke to the emperor, Cortés proudly said he had given the empire more land.

Expedition against Algiers

Main article: Algiers expedition (1541)

The emperor allowed Cortés to join a big naval campaign against Algiers in 1541. During this difficult journey, Cortés faced many challenges.

Taxa named after Cortés

Cortés is honored in the scientific name of a special subspecies of Mexican lizard, Phrynosoma orbiculare cortezii. Scientists sometimes name plants and animals after important people from history, and this lizard is one example.

Disputed interpretation of his life

There are not many sources about the early life of Hernán Cortés. He became famous for leading the conquest of Mexico in the early 1500s. Most of what we know about him comes from his own letters to the king of Spain, written during the conquest. These letters were meant to show his efforts in a good light, so they should be read carefully.

Another important source is a biography written by Cortés’s private chaplain, who never visited the Americas and often added storybook-like details. There is also an eyewitness account by one of Cortés’s soldiers, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who tells the story from the soldiers’ point of view and does not paint Cortés as a perfect hero. Because of these different accounts, people argue about whether Cortés was a cruel leader or a noble one.

Representations in Mexico

In Mexico, there are not many statues or pictures of Cortés, but some places still carry his name, like the Palacio de Cortés in Cuernavaca and streets named after him. The path between two volcanoes, Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl, where Cortés marched to Mexico City, is called the Paso de Cortés. Famous artist Diego Rivera painted Cortés in a powerful and serious way in a mural in Mexico City’s National Palace.

In 1981, a president of Mexico tried to honor Cortés by showing a statue of him publicly, but people protested, and the statue was hidden away. Another statue showing Cortés with a local woman and their child had to be moved because of protests as well.

Cultural depictions

Hernán Cortés appears as a character in an opera called La Conquista, which tells the story of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Writings: the Cartas de Relación

Cortés wrote five letters to the king of Spain about his conquest of Mexico. These letters are the main writings we have from him. The first letter was lost, but we have copies of the others, printed in Spain in the years after the conquest.

Children

Hernán Cortés had many children from different relationships. Some of his well-known children include:

• Catalina Pizarro, who married Juan de Salcedo.
• Martín Cortés, known as the "First Mestizo," who married Bernaldina de Porras.
• Luis Cortés, born to a woman from Trujillo in Spain.
• Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, daughter of an Aztec princess, who married Juan de Tolosa.
• María Cortés de Moctezuma, known only by name.

Cortés married twice. His first wife, Catalina Suárez Marcaida, did not have children. His second wife, Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, had several children with him.

In literature and the arts

Hernán Cortés has been featured in many books, songs, and movies. The Italian composer Antonio Vivaldi wrote an opera in 1733 called Motezuma, where Cortés is called "Fernando." In 1816, the poet John Keats mentioned Cortés in his work On First Looking into Chapman's Homer.

Cortés also appears in modern stories. He is a character in Gary Jennings' 1980 novel Aztec and is portrayed by actor Cesar Romero in the 1947 film Captain from Castile. Neil Young wrote a song titled "Cortez the Killer" in 1975, and Cortés appears as a character in the animated movie The Road to El Dorado from 2000. He is also a special unit in the video game Civilization VII.