Horn of Africa

The Horn of Africa (HOA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in the easternmost part of mainland Africa. It is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It includes Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the partially recognised state of Somaliland. Sometimes, parts or all of Kenya and Sudan are also included.

People often call this area "the Horn." Those who live there are sometimes called Horn Africans or Horners. This name refers to where they live and also describes a group of people who share similar languages and history, mainly the Cushitic and Ethio-Semitic speaking groups.

The Horn of Africa is very important for global trade and safety. It lies along the southern edge of the Red Sea. It stretches into the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel, and the Indian Ocean, and it shares a maritime border with the Arabian Peninsula. This location makes it a key area for international shipping and trade routes.

Names

The Horn of Africa has had many names over time. Ancient Romans called it Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora because of the fragrant plants there, or Regio Incognita since old maps didn’t show much detail. In older times, it was known as Bilad al Barbar, meaning "Land of the Berbers." Today, it’s also called the Somali Peninsula. In Somali, it’s known as Geeska Afrika or Jasiiradda Soomaali. Different local languages have their own names for it too, like in Amharic: የአፍሪካ ቀንድ, Arabic: القرن الأفريقي, Oromo: Gaanfaa Afrikaa, and Tigrinya: ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ.

Usage

The Horn of Africa is a big peninsula in the easternmost part of Africa. It includes countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the partially recognised state of Somaliland. These countries look like the shape of a horn sticking out from the rest of the continent.

Sometimes, the term Horn of Africa can also include nearby countries in southeast Africa. Scientists study the people here to learn about their shared history, culture, and languages. These studies show that the people in the Horn of Africa have a special mix of African and non-African ancestry.

Peoples

Further information: Cushitic Peoples, List of ethnic groups of Africa § Horn of Africa, Writing systems of Africa § Indigenous writing systems, Cushitic languages, Ethiopian Semitic languages, Nilotic languages, Omotic languages, Afroasiatic languages, and Nilo-Saharan languages

The Horn of Africa has many different groups of people. The main groups are the Cushitic-speaking peoples, who live in the lowlands, and the Ethio-semitic-speaking Habesha peoples, who live in the highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Some widely spoken Cushitic languages are Oromo, Somali, Sidama, and Afar. The most spoken Ethio-semitic languages are Amharic and Tigrinya.

The area has used many special ways to write words for a long time. One of these is the Ge'ez script (ግዕዝ Gəʿəz), also called Ethiopic. People in places like Amharic and Tigrinya call this script fidäl (ፊደል), meaning "script" or "alphabet". The Somali language once used a special version of the Arabic script. Later, a poet named Osman Yusuf Kenadid made a new writing system called Osmanya for Somali.

People from the Horn of Africa have a special mix of backgrounds. They come from nearby East Africa and also from far away places, like parts of Europe and the Middle East. Their ancestors likely moved back to Africa long ago, bringing traits from the Levant and North Africa.

There is also a smaller connection to southern Arabia, which came through the Red Sea. This added another layer to their family history.

History

Further information: Sub-Saharan Africa § Horn of Africa, and African empires § Horn of Africa

Prehistory

Some of the earliest human fossils, like the Omo remains from around 233,000 years ago, were found in this area, in Ethiopia.

Discoveries of the earliest stone-tipped tools show that East Africa was a source of modern cultures and human life.

Ethiopian and Eritrean farmers were the first to grow teff grass. Teff is used to make injera flatbread. Coffee also began in Ethiopia.

Ancient history

Main articles: Land of Punt, Dʿmt, Aksumite Empire, Maritime history of Somalia, Barbaria (East Africa), Macrobia, Sesea, and Ancient Somali City-States

Further information: History of Ethiopia, History of Eritrea, History of Somalia, History of Djibouti, and Ethiopian historiography

The lands including Somaliland, Somalia, Djibouti, and parts of Eritrea and Sudan are thought to be where ancient Egyptians called the land “god’s land.”

Dʿmt was a kingdom in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It used irrigation, plows, grew millet, and made iron tools.

The Aksumite Kingdom grew strong from the 1st to 7th centuries CE. It traded with the Roman Empire and Ancient India, made its own money, and later adopted Christianity.

Somalia was key for trade, supplying valuable goods to ancient traders. Somali city-states traded with many lands.

The spread of a new belief system from the Arabian Peninsula influenced local people. With Muslim families moving to the area, old city-states became Islamic centers.

Middle Ages and Early Modern era

Main articles: Adal Sultanate, Ajuran Sultanate, Isaaq Sultanate, Ethiopian Empire, Sultanate of Showa, Sultanate of Ifat, Sultanate of the Geledi, Zagwe dynasty, Sultanate of Mogadishu, Aussa Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate, Sultanate of Hobyo, Khedivate's Somali Coast, and Ottoman Zeila

Further information: History of Africa § Horn of Africa

During the Middle Ages, powerful empires controlled trade in the Horn.

The Sultanate of Showa was an early Islamic state in central Ethiopia. It later became the Sultanate of Ifat.

The Adal Sultanate controlled parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Eritrea. Cities thrived. Leaders led efforts against others.

The Ajuran Sultanate resisted attacks, kept trade routes alive, and left many ruins across Somalia.

The Zagwe dynasty ruled parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea.

In 1270, Yekuno Amlak became Emperor of Ethiopia. His empire grew strong.

In the early 1400s, Ethiopia tried to connect with European kingdoms. Portugal helped Ethiopia against attacks.

When Emperor Susenyos turned to a certain belief in 1624, it caused unrest. In 1632, his son Emperor Fasilides made Ethiopian belief the official religion again.

From the late 1700s to early 1800s, the Yejju dynasty ruled north Ethiopia.

The Isaaq Sultanate ruled parts of the Horn during the 1700s and 1800s.

The Majeerteen Sultanate was a strong Somali state in the 1800s and early 1900s.

The Sultanate of Hobyo was founded in the 1800s by Yusuf Ali Kenadid. He started his own kingdom in northern and central Somalia.

Modern history

Main articles: Italian Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, Italian East Africa, British Somaliland, French Somaliland, and French Territory of the Afars and the Issas

See also: Dervish movement (Somali), Agar Maqnat, British expedition to Abyssinia, First Italo-Abyssinian War, Second Italo-Abyssinian War, East African Campaign (World War II), Somaliland Campaign, Ogaden War, Ethiopian Civil War, Eritrean War of Independence, Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict, Ethiopian-Somali conflict, Somali Civil War, and Piracy off the coast of Somalia

After the Suez Canal opened, European countries claimed land in Africa. Italy invaded Eritrea in 1890. By 1936, Eritrea became part of Italian East Africa. In 1941, British and Ethiopian forces pushed Italy out. Eritrea later joined Ethiopia in 1950, becoming its 14th province in 1962. This led to a long fight for independence, which ended in 1991 when Eritrea became its own country.

From 1862 to 1894, the area now called Djibouti was ruled by Somali and Afar leaders. France set up a base in Djibouti City in 1894. Djibouti became independent from France in 1977.

The Dervish group fought off British forces until 1920. Italy struggled to control Somalia until the late 1920s. After Italy lost in World War II, Britain took over until Somalia became independent in 1960.

Modern Ethiopia grew from the central area of Shoa. Emperor Menelik II expanded the country, taking land from others. He signed a treaty with Italy in 1889.

In the early 1900s, Emperor Haile Selassie ruled Ethiopia. In 1935, Italy invaded and took over, but Haile Selassie spoke out to the world. After Italy entered World War II, British and Ethiopian forces freed Ethiopia in 1941.

Haile Selassie’s rule ended in 1974. In 1977, a war called the Ogaden War started when Somalia tried to take land called Ogaden. Ethiopia got help and stopped Somalia.

In 1989, a group joined others to overthrow the government in 1991. A new government started in 1995.

Geography

Geology and climate

The Horn of Africa is found almost equally between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It is mostly made of mountains that rose up because of the Great Rift Valley, a long crack in Earth's surface stretching from Turkey to Mozambique.

Long ago, the Horn of Africa and Yemen were joined together. Over time, the sea filled the space between them, creating the Gulf of Aden. The area has many mountains. The mountains drop down to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. There is a small island called Socotra in the Indian Ocean.

The flat areas near the coast often get very little rain. However, the mountain areas, especially in Ethiopia, get a lot of rain each year.

Ecology

The Horn of Africa is home to many animals, including several types of antelopes, special birds, and many reptiles that are found only in this area. There are also many fish species in the freshwater rivers and lakes.

The region has thousands of plant species, with many that grow only here. The climate is often dry, and droughts can happen. These droughts have caused problems for animals and people. Efforts to help the land recover have had some success.

Economy

The Horn of Africa has an economy with both official and unofficial trade. In 2010, the region’s economy was worth about $106 billion.

Much of the trade happens without official records, especially animals like cows, camels, sheep, and goats. People from Ethiopia often sell these animals to countries like Somalia and Djibouti. This trade, worth between $250 million and $300 million each year, is bigger than official trade. Big markets in places like Burao and Yirowe sell many animals every day, many going to Gulf states through the port of Berbera. This trade helps keep food prices lower and supports the region.