Reusable launch vehicle

A reusable launch vehicle has parts that can be used again after a flight. These parts carry payloads from Earth into outer space. The most common parts reused are rocket stages. Smaller parts like fairings, boosters, or rocket engines can also be reused. Because these parts do not need to be made new each time, reusable launch vehicles can lower the launch cost.

But reusing parts takes extra work. The parts must be found, checked, and fixed before they can be used again. Reusable launch vehicles often need extra avionics and propellant, which makes them heavier. They also need special tools to survive coming back through Earth’s atmosphere, like heat shields, grid fins, and other flight control surfaces. Some reusable vehicles look like airplanes and can glide or use lift to land safely. Others use parachutes or retrorockets to slow down. Some need special places to land, such as runways or ocean platforms called autonomous spaceport drone ships.

The idea of reusable launch vehicles appeared in early science fiction stories. The first real reusable launch vehicle was the Space Shuttle, which started in the 1970s. Later, work on these vehicles slowed down. But recently, private companies have created new vehicles like SpaceShipOne, New Shepard, Falcon 9, and Falcon Heavy. Many more reusable vehicles are planned for the future, such as Starship and New Glenn.

Because of reusability, space travel has become more possible and affordable. In 2024, plans were made to improve places like the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station to support more launches and landings of these new reusable vehicles.

Configurations

Fully reusable launch vehicle

Several companies are working on fully reusable launch vehicles as of January 2026. They are creating systems with two-stage-to-orbit. SpaceX is testing Starship, which started development in 2016 and had its first test flight in April 2023, with 11 flights by October 2025. Blue Origin has Project Jarvis, but has not shared any test dates. Stoke Space is also making a reusable rocket.

As of January 2026^[update], Starship is the only launch vehicle that is fully reusable and has been built and tested. Its fifth test flight was on October 13, 2024, and it completed a suborbital launch and landed both stages for the second time.

Partially reusable launch systems

Partial reusable launch systems have been the only reusable types used so far. The Space Shuttle reused its Solid Rocket Boosters, its RS-25 engines, and the Space Shuttle orbiter, but not the External Tank. This shows how some parts of rockets can be reused. ULA's Vulcan Centaur was made to reuse the first stage engines, but the tank is not reused. On February 23, 2024, one of the nine Merlin engines on a Falcon 9 flight worked for the 22nd time, making it the most reused liquid fuel engine. As of 2026, Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, and New Glenn are the only rockets that reuse their boosters, but more systems are being made.

Reusable spacecraft

Main article: Reusable spacecraft

Launch systems can work with reusable spaceplanes or capsules. The Space Shuttle orbiter, SpaceShipTwo, Dawn Mk-II Aurora, and the Indian RLV-TD are examples of reusable space vehicles. Today, reusable orbital vehicles include the X-37, Dragon 2, and the upcoming Dream Chaser, Indian RLV-TD, and the European Space Rider (which follows the IXV).

In the 2010s, the space transport cargo capsule from a supplier for the International Space Station was made to be reused. After 2017, NASA allowed SpaceX to reuse the Dragon cargo spacecraft for its transport work. The Boeing Starliner capsules use parachutes and an airbag to land, making it easier to reuse them. As of 2021^[update], SpaceX is making and testing the Starship spaceship so it can survive many hypersonic reentries through the atmosphere and become a long-lasting spaceship.

Entry systems

Main article: Atmospheric entry

See also: Air brake (aeronautics), Aerobraking, Aeroshell, Gravity turn, and Orbital injection

Heat shield

See also: Atmospheric entry § Thermal protection systems

Some rockets have special shields to protect them when they come back through the air. These shields can be like balloons that fill with air or cool tiles. They help the rocket land safely without using a lot of fuel. This saves money because expensive parts can be reused.

Retrograde thrust

Main articles: Retrorocket and Thrust reversal

Some reusable rockets, like the Falcon 9 and the New Shepard, use special engine burns to slow down when they return to Earth and land.

Landing systems

Reusable rockets can have one or more stages that go into space. They can land in different ways.

Some rockets use parachutes and airbags to land. They might land in water or on the ground, sometimes using engines to slow down just before touching down. Examples include the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters and the SpaceX Dragon capsule.

Other rockets land like airplanes, using wings and landing gear. These usually don’t use fuel to land. Examples include the Space Shuttle orbiter and SpaceShipTwo, a spaceplane for space tourism made by Virgin Galactic.

Some rockets land straight down using engines to slow themselves. Examples include the boosters of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy, which land using one of their engines. The Falcon 9 rocket was the first to land its first stage vertically on the ground.

Constraints

Reusable rocket parts are heavier than parts used only once. This extra weight is from tools, landing gear, and extra fuel to bring the rocket back down. The extra weight depends on the rocket and how it returns.

After a rocket lands, it often needs repairs before it can fly again. These repairs can take a long time and cost a lot. Sometimes, a rocket might not be safe for people after repairs, but some rockets have flown again with people. Eventually, a rocket can only be repaired so many times before it needs to be retired. How many times it can be used again depends on the rocket's design.

Return to launch site

After 1980, two space vehicles could return to their starting point. The US Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran could bring part of the vehicle back to the launch site by landing like an airplane. But the main structure and large fuel tank were still thrown away after use.

In the 2000s, SpaceX and Blue Origin developed new ways for rockets to land straight down after a flight. SpaceX landed part of their Falcon 9 rocket in December 2015. Since then, more rockets have landed either close to the launch site or on a special platform at sea. The Falcon Heavy can also reuse its three main parts.

Blue Origin’s New Shepard rocket also landed successfully several times. New Shepard flies straight up and down, while Falcon 9 must return from much farther away after delivering payloads into space.

Both companies are working on new reusable rockets. Blue Origin is developing the New Glenn. SpaceX is working on the SpaceX Starship, designed to bring both its main and upper parts back safely. Its fourth launch attempt saw both parts land softly in the Gulf of Mexico and the Indian Ocean.

History

With the development of rocket propulsion in the first half of the twentieth century, space travel became possible. Early ideas of a single-stage reusable spaceplane were not realistic. Early rockets could reach the edge of space, but reusable technology was too heavy. Many early rockets were built to carry weapons, so they could not be reused. The problem of weight was solved by using many stages in a vertical launch multistage rocket. The USAF and NACA studied reusable spaceplanes since 1958, like Dyna-Soar, but the first reusable stages flew with the US Space Shuttle in 1981.

Perhaps the first reusable launch vehicles were studied by Wernher von Braun from 1948 to 1956. The von Braun ferry rocket would have landed using parachutes.

The General Dynamics Nexus was proposed in the 1960s as a fully reusable rocket, able to carry up to 450–910 t to orbit. See also Sea Dragon, and Douglas SASSTO.

The BAC Mustard was studied starting in 1964. It would have had three identical spaceplanes strapped together. During ascent the two outer spaceplanes would detach and glide back to earth. It was canceled in 1967 due to a lack of funds.

The Space Shuttle era

NASA started the Space Shuttle design process in 1968, with the idea of a fully reusable spaceplane. This idea was too expensive and complex, so the design was changed to reusable solid rocket boosters and an expendable external tank. Space Shuttle Columbia launched and landed 27 times and was lost on the 28th landing; Challenger launched and landed 9 times and was lost on the 10th launch; Discovery launched and landed 39 times; Atlantis launched and landed 33 times; Endeavour launched and landed 25 times. The last mission of Space Shuttle, STS-135, landed in 2011 after delivering supplies to the International Space Station ISS.

In 1986 President Ronald Reagan called for an air-breathing scramjet National Aerospace Plane (NASP)/X-30. The project failed and was canceled in 1993.

In the late 1980s a fully reusable version of the Soviet Energia rocket was proposed. Its boosters and core would have landed separately on a runway. This idea was not developed and the original Energia flew only twice. The second flight launched the reusable spacecraft Buran on its first and only, uncrewed mission.

In the 1990s the McDonnell Douglas Delta Clipper proposal went to testing. The DC-X prototype showed quick turnaround time and automatic control.

In the mid-1990s, British research turned an earlier HOTOL design into the Skylon design, which stayed in development until 2024 when the company went bankrupt. In 2025, the European Space Agency (ESA) said it would use technologies from Skylon's SABRE engine in its future Flying Engine Testbed initiative INVICTUS.

From the late 1990s to the 2000s, the European Space Agency (ESA) studied the recovery of the Ariane 5 solid rocket boosters. The last recovery try was in 2009.

Two commercial groups, Kistler Aerospace (later Rocketplane Kistler) and Rotary Rocket, tried to build reusable rockets in the 1990s but went bankrupt.

NASA suggested reusable ideas to replace the Shuttle under the X-33 and X-34 programs, but both were canceled in the early 2000s due to high costs and technical issues.

The Ansari X Prize contest, started in 1996, aimed to develop private suborbital reusable vehicles. Many companies tried, with the winner, Scaled Composites, reaching the Kármán line twice in 2004 with their reusable SpaceShipOne. The design was later used in the space tourism vehicle SpaceShipTwo, which flew on multiple suborbital flights.

Between 1999 and 2004, the German DLR worked on two reusable launch vehicle ideas. The Liquid Fly-back Booster (LFBB) was a winged booster for the Ariane rockets. The Hopper spacecraft was a rocket sled-launched spaceplane. In 2004, DLR tested a small version of Hopper called Phoenix RLV at the North European Aerospace Test range in Kiruna.

In 2001, the Russian Khrunichev space centre suggested a reusable booster called Baikal for the Angara rockets. This vehicle never flew. A similar idea was suggested by Roscosmos in 2018 with no updates.

In 2005, NASA started the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program to help private companies develop uncrewed cargo vehicles for the ISS. This briefly brought back the reusable Kistler K-1 idea, but it was canceled for lack of funding. However, SpaceX used this support to develop its Falcon 9 rocket, which later became partially reusable.

2010s

In 2012, SpaceX began testing with small vehicles. This led to the development of the Falcon 9 reusable rocket. SpaceX made the first successful landing of a reusable rocket stage in 2015 after delivering satellites into low Earth orbit. The first reuse of a Falcon 9 stage happened in 2017. Since then, SpaceX has regularly recovered and reused their stages, as well as parts of the rocket.

In 2015, Airbus Defence and Space suggested the Adeline reusable engine for the Ariane rockets. In 2018, CNES said the idea was not financially interesting and it was not developed further.

On 23 November 2015 the New Shepard rocket became the first VTVL sub-orbital rocket to reach space and return for a landing.

In November 2016, the European Space Agency (ESA) chose the Spanish company PLD Space to develop a reusable first stage. This project became known as Miura 5 in 2018. In April 2019, PLD Space tested a small version of Miura 5.

In 2017, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) began work on the Reusable Flight Experiment (ReFEx) to test a winged booster. As of 2024, its launch was planned for late 2026.

In 2018, China researched reusability for the Long March 8 system. This was later stopped. But several Chinese private companies have tested reusable rockets since 2019.

In March 2019, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) began the EU-funded project RETALT to develop retropropulsion technologies for reusable rockets.

In 2019 Rocket Lab said they would recover and reuse the first stage of their Electron rocket, using parachutes and mid-air retrieval. In November 2020, Rocket Lab successfully brought back an Electron stage, but later decided not to reuse the stages often, focusing instead on a larger rocket.

2020s

In 2020, the only operational reusable orbital rockets were the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy. SpaceX was also developing the fully reusable Starship. Blue Origin was developing its New Glenn rocket with a reusable first stage.

In October 2020, Roscosmos signed a contract for Amur, a new rocket with a reusable first stage. In 2024, Roscosmos said the vehicle would fly no earlier than 2030.

In December 2020, the European Space Agency (ESA) began developing THEMIS, a prototype reusable first stage. In September 2025, the first THEMIS prototype was completed at its launch site in Sweden. Lessons from THEMIS and smaller tests will help with future European reusable rockets Maia and Ariane Next.

In January 2022, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) started the ATHEAt program to test technologies for reusable rockets. The first test flight launched on 6 October 2025 from Andøya Space in Norway and the second is planned for 2026 from Esrange Space Center in Sweden.

In 2022, China announced plans to use reusable first stages on the new Long March 9 and Long March 10 rockets for its lunar program. In February 2026, Long March 10's first stage landed in water after a test.

In October 2023, the Spanish company PLD Space, with ESA support, tested technologies for its future reusable rocket Miura 5 by launching the suborbital rocket Miura 1 in Spain. The company said that up to 70% of the technology for Miura 5 could be tested on Miura 1.

In September 2024, the Indian government approved plans to develop a new partially reusable rocket NGLV. It is expected to be ready around 2033.

In November 2024, China launched the Long March 12 rocket, with a later version Long March 12A designed to have a reusable first stage. In January 2025, a test flight of a similar rocket was done, but the result was not shared. Long March 12A flew for the first time on 23 December 2025, but the first stage was destroyed during landing.

In 2025, Arianespace suggested making Ariane 6 partially reusable by using new boosters from its subsidiary MaiaSpace. This idea was paid for by ESA's BEST! initiative.

In June 2025, the Japanese company Honda successfully tested a small rocket with landing legs.

In September 2025, the European Space Agency (ESA) gave a contract to the Italian company Avio to develop a reusable upper stage. ESA also gave a contract to Ingegneria Dei Sistemi (IDS) to design a vessel to recover rocket stages. Avio has been developing rocket demonstrators with possible reusability features for its future Vega Next rocket.

On 20 October 2025, the Chinese company LandSpace tested its new rocket Zhuque-3 for partial reusability. The rocket launched and reached orbit on 3 December 2025 but the first stage was destroyed during landing.

On 13 November 2025, Blue Origin's New Glenn rocket launched NASA's ESCAPADE spacecraft to Mars. The rocket's first stage landed successfully on a barge. The same stage was reused on 19 April 2026, although the main mission failed due to a problem with the second stage.

List of reusable launch vehicles

Existing

Planned

List of reusable spacecraft

Main article: Reusable spacecraft § List of reusable orbital spacecraft

List of reusable suborbital spacecrafts

As of 1 December 2024.