Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate was the second caliphate after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 661 to 750.

It began when Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Greater Syria, became caliph after the First Fitna in 661. Damascus became the capital, and Syria was very important to the Umayyads.

The Umayyads kept expanding their lands. They went into places like the Maghreb, Transoxiana, Sindh, and Hispania. At its biggest, the Umayyad Caliphate covered about 15,000,000 km², making it one of the largest empires in history. Later, it was overthrown by the Abbasids in 750.

The Umayyad Caliphate ruled many different kinds of people. Christians and Jews could practice their religions if they paid a special tax called jizya. This helped the Umayyads manage such a big area. The Umayyad time is also known for the early growth of Islamic art.

History

Origins

The Umayyads were a clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. They became important leaders in trade and made alliances with Arab tribes. After Mecca was captured by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 630, the Umayyads converted to Islam and moved to Medina.

When Muhammad died in 632, there was debate over who would lead the Muslim community. The early followers of Muhammad, called the Muhajirun, chose Abu Bakr as the first caliph. He gave the Umayyads important roles, including leadership in the Muslim conquest of Syria.

Caliphate of Uthman

Uthman ibn Affan, a wealthy Umayyad, became caliph after Abu Bakr and Umar. He appointed family members as leaders in new areas, which caused some anger among other Muslims. Uthman died in 656.

First Fitna

After Uthman's death, Ali became caliph but faced opposition from leaders who wanted to keep power within the Quraysh tribe. After years of conflict, Mu'awiya became caliph in 661.

Sufyanid period

Caliphate of Mu'awiya

Mu'awiya moved the capital to Damascus and worked to strengthen his rule. He faced opposition but kept control through alliances and military campaigns.

Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule

Mu'awiya chose his son Yazid I as his successor. Yazid faced challenges, including a revolt by Ali's son Husayn. After Yazid's death, his son Mu'awiya II took over but died soon after, ending the Sufyanid line.

Early Marwanid period

Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna

After Mu'awiya II's death, Marwan ibn al-Hakam became caliph with the help of loyal tribes. He defeated opponents and restored Umayyad control. His son Abd al-Malik continued to strengthen the caliphate.

Domestic consolidation and centralization

Abd al-Malik worked to unify the caliphate by creating a professional army, changing the official language to Arabic, and building important monuments like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Renewal of conquests

Under leaders like al-Walid I, the Umayyad Caliphate expanded into areas such as Armenia, North Africa, and parts of the Iberian Peninsula. These conquests brought great wealth to the caliphate.

Late Marwanid period

Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion

Hisham, the last son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph, saw the end of major expansions. The caliphate faced revolts and challenges to its authority.

Third Fitna

Internal conflicts weakened the Umayyad rule. The Abbasid family led a revolution that overthrew the Umayyads, ending their caliphate in 750. Some Umayyads escaped and continued their influence in other regions.

Administration

The early Umayyad caliphs created a stable way to govern their large empire. They used ideas from the Byzantine Empire, which had ruled the same areas before. They had four main groups to help run things: politics, the army, tax collection, and religious matters. Each group had smaller teams to help with different tasks.

The empire was divided into several areas, each led by a governor chosen by the caliph. The governor was in charge of many things in their area, including religious leaders, army leaders, police, and everyday workers. People in each area paid taxes, and some of the money went to the main government in Damascus. Later, some governors kept extra money for themselves instead of sending it all to Damascus.

The Umayyad army was mostly made up of Arab people, especially those from cities in Syria and tribes that had worked with the Roman army before. Soldiers were listed and paid by the Army Ministry. The army was split into groups based on cities with strong walls. There were around 300,000 soldiers listed in the year 700.

The Umayyads also made their own coins. At first, they used coins from the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires, but later they began making their own. These new coins had Arabic writing on them and were different from the old designs. The main gold coin was called a dinar, the silver coin was called a dirham, and the bronze coin was called a fals or fulus.

Social organization

The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes: Muslim Arabs, Muslim non-Arabs, Dhimmis (non-Muslim free persons such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians), and Slaves. The Muslim Arabs were at the top of society and believed it was their duty to rule the areas they had taken over.

As more people became Muslims, many were not Arab. This caused problems because they did not have the same rights as Arab Muslims. With fewer non-Muslims, the money from taxes also went down. These issues grew until they helped lead to the Abbasid Revolt in the 740s.

Non-Muslim groups, called dhimmis, included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagans. They were allowed to live safely if they accepted Muslim rule. They paid a special tax called jizya, while Muslims paid a different tax called zakat. If non-Muslims became Muslims, they would stop paying jizya and pay zakat instead.

Even though non-Muslims could not hold the highest government jobs, they worked in many important positions. For example, a Christian man named Sarjun ibn Mansur helped manage money for the government in Syria for many years.

Architecture

Main article: Umayyad architecture

The Umayyads built big congregational mosques and grand palaces. Many of their famous buildings are in the Levant. Some well-known buildings are the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus. They also built special desert palaces, like Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qusayr 'Amra.

Umayyad buildings mixed styles from different cultures, such as Greek and Persian. They used beautiful decorations, including mosaics. Their buildings helped shape Islamic architecture. Later rulers in al-Andalus, like those in the Emirate and the Caliphate of Córdoba, continued this tradition, building places such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba and Madinat al-Zahra.

Legacy

The Umayyad Caliphate grew very large but had trouble managing it all. They often favored older Arab families, including their own, over new converts to Islam. Many people thought this was unfair.

During this time, Arabic became the main language for government work. Many people converted to Islam, which helped unite the lands.

Some later historians did not think highly of the Umayyads. They thought the leaders acted more like kings than religious leaders. But the Umayyads saw themselves as representatives of God, guiding the rules of Islam.

Today, some Arab nations see the Umayyad time as a golden age of Arab history. The Umayyad leaders used a white banner, which is now a main color on many Arab flags.

Religious perspectives

Sunni

Some Muslims felt the Umayyads did not treat new converts well. They kept many non-Muslim tax collectors in their jobs, which upset some people. One Umayyad leader, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, reduced these taxes and is praised for his fairness and strong belief in Islam. He also treated all people more equally, even his own family.

Shias

Many followers of Shia Islam had a negative view of the Umayyads. They felt the Umayyad leaders were unfair and did not follow Islam properly.

Bahais

In some religious writings, the Umayyad leaders are described using symbols.

List of caliphs

Main articles: Umayyad dynasty and Umayyad dynasty family tree