William the Conqueror

William the Conqueror (about 1028 – 9 September 1087) was the first Norman king of England (as William I), ruling from 1066 until he died. He was also Duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035.

In 1066, after Edward the Confessor died, William invaded England. He led an army to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. This started what is called the Norman Conquest.

William had a hard start in life, as he was born outside of marriage and had to work to control his lands. By 1060, he held power in Normandy. As king, William worked to control both England and his European lands. He built many castles, brought new noble families to England, and changed church leaders.

In 1086, William ordered the creation of the Domesday Book, a detailed record of land ownership in England. He died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and was buried in Caen. After his death, his lands were split: Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert, and England went to his second son, William Rufus.

Background

Norsemen started raiding the land that became Normandy in the late 8th century. In 911, Rollo, a Viking leader, made a deal with King Charles the Simple of France. Rollo was given the county of Rouen, and the area around Rouen became the duchy of Normandy.

King Æthelred the Unready of England married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy, in 1002. He hoped this would help peace. But Danish raids kept happening. In 1013, King Swein I of Denmark forced Æthelred out of England, so Æthelred went to Normandy for safety. After Swein died in 1014, Æthelred went home, but Swein's son Cnut did not agree with this. When Æthelred died in 1016, Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma’s sons, Edward and Alfred, had to leave England and live in Normandy. Their mother Emma even married Cnut.

When Cnut died in 1035, his son Harold Harefoot became king of England, and another son, Harthacnut, ruled Denmark. England stayed troubled. Alfred returned to England in 1036, maybe to try to become king, but he died soon after. Emma went to Flanders until Harthacnut became king of Denmark after Harold died in 1040. When Harthacnut died in 1042, Edward became king of England.

Early life

William was born in 1027 or 1028 in Falaise, in the Duchy of Normandy. He was the only son of Robert I, who later became the duke. His mother, Herleva, was from a local family and did not marry Robert. She later married Herluin de Conteville, and they had two more children, Odo of Bayeux and Count Robert of Mortain.

Robert I became duke in 1027 after his brother Richard III passed away. The time was difficult in Normandy, with some noble families causing trouble. Robert made sure William was recognized as his heir before he left on a journey to Jerusalem in 1034. Sadly, Robert died during this journey, but William continued to grow up to become an important leader.

Château de Falaise in Falaise, Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.

Duke of Normandy

William faced many challenges when he became duke. He was born outside of marriage and was very young—he was either seven or eight years old. He had the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, and King Henry I of France. This help allowed him to take over his father’s lands. But after Archbishop Robert died in 1037, the region became chaotic.

For many years, William worked hard to keep control. Some of his guardians were killed or lost control, and William sometimes had to hide. King Henry kept supporting him. In 1047, William and Henry fought a battle near Caen and won. This helped William gain more power. Over the next years, William continued to work hard to fully control his lands. He fought against local nobles and other leaders.

William married Matilda of Flanders. This marriage helped strengthen his position. Even though there were some issues at first, it later helped William’s status and relationships. William was known for his strong health and skill in combat. He also supported the growth of religion in his lands by building new monasteries and appointing important church leaders.

English and continental concerns

In 1051, King Edward of England, who did not have children, chose William to be the next king. William was the grandson of Edward’s maternal uncle, Richard II of Normandy.

Some records say that William visited England late in 1051, maybe to confirm he would be the next king or to get help with his problems in Normandy. But this trip seems unlikely because William was busy fighting in another place called Anjou at the time. Even if Edward wanted William to be king, many people in England, especially a powerful man named Godwin, Earl of Wessex, would not have liked it. Edward had married Godwin’s daughter, Edith, in 1043, and Godwin was a strong supporter of Edward’s rule. But by 1050, Edward and Godwin had arguments, and in 1051, Godwin and his family were sent away from England. While Godwin was away, Edward is said to have offered the throne to William. Godwin returned in 1052 with an army, and things were settled so that Godwin got his lands back. A Norman church leader named Robert was replaced by another leader named Stigand.

William also had to deal with problems near his lands in Normandy. When a count named Herbert II of Maine died in 1062, William claimed that area for his son Robert. After some fighting, William took control by 1064. He also made sure his western border was safe but still had trouble with a place called Brittany. In 1064, William attacked Brittany, which caused problems there and kept its leader busy with his own issues. This leader died in 1066, helping William feel more secure about his borders.

Meanwhile, in England, Godwin died in 1053, and his son Harold became an important leader. Another son, Tostig, became leader of a place called Northumbria. In 1065, people in Northumbria did not like Tostig and chose another leader instead. Harold helped this change, maybe to get support for his own claim to be king. King Edward died on 5 January 1066. Some stories say Edward named Harold as the next king on his deathbed. Norman sources say Harold had promised William the throne earlier, but English sources say Harold was chosen by leaders and church people in England.

Invasion of England

Main article: Norman conquest of England

Harold became king of England on 6 January 1066. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey, which was built in the Norman-style. But other people wanted to be king, too. These included King Harald Hardrada of Norway and William of Normandy.

Harold’s brother Tostig attacked southern England in May 1066, but he didn’t get much help. William gathered an army and ships in Normandy, waiting for the right time to invade.

In September 1066, Tostig and Harald Hardrada attacked Northumbria. Harold defeated them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Just two days later, William’s ships landed at Pevensey Bay. He moved to Hastings and built a castle there.

The Battle of Hastings happened on 14 October. Harold’s army fought against William’s army. After a long, tough battle, Harold was killed. Without their leader, the English army lost.

After the battle, William marched toward London. Some English leaders chose Edgar the Ætheling as king, but they didn’t support him well. William took control of important places and crossed the Thames. By Christmas Day 1066, William was crowned king at Westminster Abbey.

Consolidation

Further information: Government in Norman and Angevin England

William stayed in England after becoming king and worked to bring local leaders together. He kept some local earls in their jobs and planned marriages to connect their families. But the families of Harold and his brothers lost their lands because they fought against William. By March, William felt strong enough to return to Normandy but left trusted men to care for England.

The remains of Baile Hill, the second motte-and-bailey castle built by William in York

While William was away, some people in England resisted his rule. There were attacks and uprisings in different places. William returned to England and dealt with these challenges by building castles to help control the land. He also had issues with the church and worked to reorganize it, changing some leadership positions.

Main article: Harrying of the North

William continued to face challenges from people who did not want him to rule. There were revolts and attacks, and at one time, a Danish fleet arrived in England, causing more trouble. William responded quickly, moving through areas and making sure his supporters were in charge of new forts he built. These efforts helped bring stability to the region.

Troubles in England and on the Continent

Danish raids and rebellion

Further information: Ely Rebellion

In early 1070, a leader named Sweyn returned to England even though he had promised to leave. He moved along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely and joined forces with Hereward the Wake, a local leader. Hereward's group captured and looted Peterborough Abbey. William sent Sweyn and his fleet away in 1070 and went back to the continent to deal with problems in Maine, where the town of Le Mans had rebelled in 1069. Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070, which caused a struggle for power. His widow, Richilde, was ruling for their two young sons, Arnulf and Baldwin. Her rule was challenged by Robert, Baldwin's brother. Richilde asked William fitzOsbern to marry her, and he agreed. However, fitzOsbern was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel, and Robert became count. He opposed King William's influence on the continent, so the Battle of Cassel changed the balance of power in northern France and cost William an important ally.

In 1071, William defeated the last rebellion in the north. Earl Edwin was killed by his own men, and William built a causeway to take control of the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Hereward escaped, but Morcar was captured, lost his position, and was imprisoned. In 1072, William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had attacked northern England. William and Malcolm made peace with the Treaty of Abernethy, and Malcolm likely gave up his son Duncan as a guarantee of peace. William then focused on the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with an invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. William quickly seized Le Mans from Fulk's forces, finishing the campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power stronger in northern France, but the new count of Flanders allowed Edgar the Ætheling to stay in his court. Robert also married his half-sister Bertha to King Philip I of France, who opposed Norman power.

William returned to England to dismiss his army in 1073 but soon went back to Normandy, where he spent all of 1074. He left England in the care of his supporters, including Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne, as well as Lanfranc. William's ability to leave England for a whole year showed that he felt his control of the kingdom was strong. While William was in Normandy, Edgar the Ætheling went to Scotland from Flanders. The French king suggested that Edgar be given the castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer on the Channel, which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William. However, Edgar soon submitted to William and returned to William's court. Philip turned his attention to Brittany, leading to a revolt in 1075.

Norwich Castle. The keep dates to after the Revolt of the Earls, but the castle mound is earlier.

Revolt of the Earls

Main article: Revolt of the Earls

In 1075, while William was away, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil, the Earl of Hereford, planned to remove William from power in the "Revolt of the Earls". Ralph was partly Breton and had lived most of his life before 1066 in Brittany, where he still owned land. Roger was a Norman, the son of William fitzOsbern, but had inherited less authority than his father. Ralph's power also seemed weaker than that of his predecessors in the earldom, which likely led to his involvement in the revolt.

The exact reason for the rebellion is not clear. It began at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger, held at Exning in Suffolk. Waltheof, the earl of Northumbria, although one of William's favorites, was involved, and some Breton lords were ready to support Ralph and Roger. Ralph also asked for help from the Danes. William stayed in Normandy while his men in England handled the revolt. Roger could not leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was trapped in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey de Montbray, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Ralph eventually left Norwich in the care of his wife and fled to Brittany. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, Cnut, arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes raided along the coast before returning home. William returned to England later in 1075 to deal with the Danish threat, leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy. He celebrated Christmas at Winchester and handled the aftermath of the rebellion. Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. Before this, William had returned to the continent, where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany.

Troubles at home and abroad

Map showing William's lands in 1087 (light pink)

Earl Ralph had taken control of the castle at Dol, and in September 1076 William moved into Brittany and laid siege to the castle. King Philip of France later lifted the siege and defeated William at the Battle of Dol in 1076, forcing him to retreat to Normandy. Although this was William's first defeat in battle, it did not change much. An attack by Anjou on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077, with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the failed attack. More serious was the retirement of Simon de Crépy, the Count of Amiens, to a monastery. Before becoming a monk, Simon gave his county of the Vexin to King Philip. The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon had supported William. William made peace with Philip in 1077 and reached a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078.

In late 1077 or early 1078, trouble arose between William and his eldest son, Robert. Although a story says that Robert's younger brothers William and Henry threw water on him, it is more likely that Robert felt powerless. Orderic relates that Robert had previously asked for control of Maine and Normandy and had been refused. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 led to Robert leaving Normandy with a group of young men, many of them the sons of William's supporters. Among them were Robert of Belleme, William de Breteuil, and Roger, the son of Richard fitzGilbert. This group went to the castle at Remalard, where they raided into Normandy. The raiders were supported by many of William's enemies on the continent. William quickly attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they gained new supporters. William then besieged Gerberoi in January 1079. After three weeks, the besieged forces surprised the attackers. William was knocked off his horse by Robert and was only saved by an Englishman, Toki son of Wigod, who was killed. William's forces had to end the siege, and the king returned to Rouen. By 12 April 1080, William and Robert reached an agreement, with William once more saying that Robert would receive Normandy when he died.

News of William's defeat at Gerberoi caused problems in northern England. In August and September 1079, King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed, destroying the land between the River Tees and the Tweed for almost a month. The lack of Norman response seemed to make the Northumbrians restless, and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher, the Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northumbria. Walcher was killed on 14 May 1080, and the king sent his half-brother Odo to handle the rebellion. William left Normandy in July 1080, and in the autumn his son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots. Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms, building the 'new castle' at Newcastle upon Tyne while returning to England. The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081, formally wearing his crown on both occasions. A papal emissary came to England during this time, asking that William pledge loyalty for England to the papacy, a request that he refused. William also visited Wales in 1081, though English and Welsh sources differ on the reason for the visit. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says it was a military campaign, but Welsh sources say it was a pilgrimage to St Davids in honor of Saint David. William's biographer David Bates argues that the first explanation is more likely: the balance of power had recently changed in Wales, and William would have wanted to take advantage of this to extend Norman power. By the end of 1081, William was back on the continent, dealing with disturbances in Maine. Although he led an expedition into Maine, the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate.

Last years

Information about William's actions between 1082 and 1084 is limited. According to historian David Bates, this probably means that little of importance happened, and because William was on the continent, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record. In 1082, William ordered the arrest of his half-brother Odo. The exact reasons are unclear, as no contemporary writer recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Orderic Vitalis later said that Odo wanted to become pope and had tried to persuade some of William's vassals to join Odo in an invasion of southern Italy. This would have been seen as interfering with the king's authority over his vassals, which William would not have allowed. Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William's reign, his lands were not taken away. In 1083, William's son Robert rebelled again with support from the French king. Another difficulty was the death of Queen Matilda on 2 November 1083. William was always described as close to his wife, and her death would have added to his problems.

Maine continued to be troubled, with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine, probably in 1084. Hubert was besieged in his castle at Sainte-Suzanne by William's forces for at least two years, but he eventually made peace with the king and was restored to favor. William's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear – he was in Normandy at Easter 1084 but may have been in England before then to collect the danegeld assessed that year for the defense of England against an invasion by King Cnut IV of Denmark. Although English and Norman forces stayed on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086, the invasion threat ended with Cnut's death in July 1086.

William as king

Changes in England

The White Tower in London, begun by William

William wanted to keep control of England, so he built many castles and forts. These included big towers like the Tower of London and the White Tower. At first, these were made from earth and wood, but later they were built with stone. These castles gave soldiers safe places to hide if people tried to rebel and helped protect the land.

William also changed how the army worked. He made sure his important leaders had to give a certain number of soldiers for battles and for guarding the castles. This was different from how things were done before he became king.

By the time William died, most of the old English leaders had been replaced by Normans and people from other places. Not all the Normans who came with William got lots of land. Some were careful about taking land because things were still unstable. Some of the new Norman landowners came from William’s family, while others came from less important families. William gave land to his followers in different ways. Sometimes he took land from one English person and gave it to a Norman. Other times, he gave a group of lands from many English people to one Norman, often so they could build a castle there.

William loved hunting and created a big area called the New Forest for this. Some people said he took away land from many people to do this, but most historians think this was not true. The New Forest had land that was not very good for farming, and it was probably not very crowded before it became a special hunting area.

English coin of William the Conqueror

Administration

Main article: Norman conquest of England § Consequences

William did not try to combine his rule in Normandy and England into one country with the same laws. When he was in Normandy, he obeyed the French king, but in England he did not. Each place kept its own ways of doing things. For example, England used special written orders called writs, which were not used in Normandy.

William took over a more complicated government in England than in Normandy. England was split into areas called shires or counties, and each was run by a royal official called a sheriff. Sheriffs were in charge of making sure laws were followed and collecting taxes. William had to travel a lot to manage his lands. He went back and forth between England and Normandy many times. When he was away, he trusted some close family members or his wife to make decisions.

William kept collecting a tax called danegeld. This was a tax on land that he could collect at different amounts depending on the situation. In most years, it was a small amount, but in tough times, he collected more. He also controlled a lot of land in England because he had taken over the lands of the old king and other important people.

Domesday Book

Main article: Domesday Book

In 1085, William decided to have a big survey made of all the lands in his kingdom. This survey, called the Domesday Book, listed who owned each piece of land, what it was worth, and what resources it had, like peasants and ploughs. It was finished by 1086, and William used it to keep track of his lands and possibly to collect more taxes.

Death and aftermath

William left England in 1086 and went back to the continent. He married his daughter Constance to Duke Alan of Brittany to get help against the French kings. In July 1087, William was hurt while fighting in the French Vexin near Mantes. He was taken to the priory of Saint Gervase at Rouen, where he died on 9 September 1087.

William left Normandy to his son Robert. His other son, also named William, was given control of England. His youngest son, Henry, received some money. After William died, things became chaotic as people dealt with their own problems. His body was moved to Caen, where he wanted to be buried. There were issues with his tomb during the funeral. Over time, his tomb was disturbed, and his bones were lost during the French Wars of Religion and the French Revolution.

Legacy

When William died, his sons Robert and William fought over who should rule England and Normandy. Even after William’s younger brother died in 1100, and their brother Henry took over, the brothers kept arguing. Robert was captured in 1106 at the Battle of Tinchebray. This fighting caused problems in Normandy, as local leaders gained back some power.

William’s rule changed England a lot. The country saw big changes in its Church, leaders, culture, and language that still affect us today. His conquest brought England closer to France and created strong ties that lasted for centuries. It also weakened old connections between England and Scandinavia. William mixed English and Norman ways of governing to create a new system that helped shape England’s future. Historians still talk about how important these changes were.

William’s time as ruler is talked about a lot. Some people praised him, while others criticized him. He remains a complex and debated figure in history.