Xian (Taoism)

A xian (traditional Chinese: 仙, 僊; simplified Chinese: 仙; pinyin: xiān; Wade–Giles: hsien) is an immortal or mythical being in the Taoist pantheon or Chinese folklore. They are often called 'transcendent', 'immortal', or 'wizard'. These beings are special and respected.

Traditionally, a xian is someone who has gained immortality and supernatural or magical powers. They often have a link to the heavenly realms that normal people cannot reach. This special status is usually achieved through spiritual self-cultivation or alchemy.

Xian are also used to describe important and kind figures from history, spirit, and culture. In some Taoist schools, like the Quanzhen School, the word xian can mean a good and principled person.

People in China have honored xian for a very long time. They are often talked about together with gods (deities) as shenxian (神仙; shénxiān). These beings play an important role in Chinese stories and beliefs.

Description

Victor H. Mair describes the xian as beings who stay safe from heat and cold and can fly upwards lightly. They live far from busy places, eating only air and dew, and they keep their young-looking skin and calm minds. These special beings live easily and freely, much like ancient holy men from India called rishi.

Xian were seen as "personal gods" who were once human and reached higher levels through deep thought, study, or skills. Taoists respected them and tried to follow their ways in daily life.

The Eight Immortals are examples of xian who became beloved heroes. People believed they helped good followers and helped connect the living with those who have passed on. Sometimes, they and other xian were thought to be similar to ghosts, but not like gods. The Eight Immortals and other xian were thought to have special powers from their tools, which could change how long people lived.

Some Taoists saw xian as inner spirits inside the body. These spirits could sometimes trouble people, but could be calmed through strong will and good habits. Not all xian came from Taoist ways, but they are most linked with Taoist seekers who found eternal life through spiritual growth.

Besides wise humans and magical beings, xian can also mean magical animals, like foxes, fox spirits, and Chinese dragons. Special dragons called Xiān dragons were thought to carry Deities or show up as Taoist wise ones such as Laozi in places called "the Heavens" (天; Tiān).

The tale of the magical huli jing (狐狸精; húli jīng; 'fox fairy') is also called huxian (狐仙; húxiān; 'fox immortal').

Akira Akahori, who wrote Drug Taking and Immortality, shares this view:

Old stories in China often told of so-called immortals. Though the idea of immortals changed over time, some pictures stayed the same. These immortals usually lived in clean, high places like mountains; they did not eat normal food; they only showed themselves to people who followed the right religious ways or were meant to meet them. Some lived in caves under holy mountains. They could change how they looked: sometimes they seemed like normal people, to test those who wanted to become immortal. They moved quickly and could fly through the air, sometimes with wings.

Types of xian and levels of achievement

The Zhōng lǚ chuándào jí is an old Taoist book from the Song dynasty. It talks about five kinds of immortals:

• Guǐ xiān (Ghost Immortals): These are people who have too much yin energy. They stay in the world of spirits.
• Rén xiān (Human Immortals): Humans with balance can become these. They don’t age or get sick but still need food and shelter, living among people.
• De xiān (Earthly Immortals): These immortals no longer need food or shelter and are not affected by weather. They stay on earth until they change their human form.
• Shénxiān (Spirit Immortals): These can change shapes and have special powers. They stay on earth teaching about the Tao and go to heaven when they earn enough good deeds.
• Tiānxiān (Celestial Immortals): These go to heaven and help judge and manage both earth and heaven.

The Baopuzi, a book from the 4th century CE, describes three kinds of immortals:

• Tiānxiān (Celestial Immortals): The highest level.
• Dì xiān (Earthly Immortals): The middle level.
• Shījiě xiān (Escaped-by-means-of-a-stimulated-corpse-simulacrum Immortal): The lowest level. This involves hiding from punishment, but it is not true immortality.

Translations

The word xian can be translated into English in many ways, depending on the context:

• In Daoist philosophy, it means a spiritually immortal or transcendent human who lives in the heavenly realms.
• In Daoist religion, it refers to a physically immortal person who is aligned with heaven and free from earthly desires.
• In Chinese alchemy, a xian is someone who seeks special potions or practices to achieve immortality.
• In Chinese mythology, xian can be seen as wizards, magicians, or shamans.
• In popular Chinese stories, they are often like genies, elves, or fairies, and their home is called fairyland.
• They are also sometimes thought of as wise sages living high in the mountains.
• In modern new-age ideas, a xian is someone who seeks a long life to reach spiritual divinity.

Etymology

The word xian has an uncertain origin. An old dictionary from around 200 CE describes xian as someone who "gets old and does not die," like a person who moves into the mountains. The word mixes ideas of a person and a mountain or going upward.

Xian is often used in phrases like Baxian (the Eight Immortals). Some scholars think the idea of xian might be linked to stories from Arabic tales or ancient Tibetan languages. The characters used to write xian often show a person connected to mountains or rising into the sky, showing how these beings are thought to live in special, faraway places.

History and textual references

Descriptions of xian ("immortals" or "transcendents") in Chinese texts changed over time as Daoist views on immortality grew.

Early texts like the Zhuangzi, Chuci, and Liezi used the idea of xian and magical islands in stories to talk about spiritual immortality. They sometimes used the term yuren ("feathered person") and linked immortals with ideas of feathers and flight, such as yuhua.

Later texts like the Shenxian Zhuan and Baopuzi talked about immortality in a more real way, describing secret practices meant to help people live longer. Neidan ("internal alchemy") included taixi ("embryonic respiration"), breath control, meditation, visualization, and daoyin exercises. Waidan ("external alchemy") focused on recipes with special plants, rare minerals, and herbal medicines.

Many Daoist texts mention xian, and some Buddhist sources also talk about them. Chinese folk religion includes such figures too, like fox gods or huxian common in Northeast China.

The Three Sovereigns had some similarities to xian because of their supernatural abilities. After his death, the Yellow Emperor was said to have become a xian.

During the Six Dynasties, xian were often part of zhiguai stories. They had magical Tao powers, like walking through walls or standing in light without casting a shadow.

Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi, a book from around the 3rd century BCE, uses the idea of xian in stories. In one story, Cloud Chief meets Big Concealment and learns to rest in inaction and let things transform by themselves. Another part talks about a sage who, after many years, may choose to leave the world and rise to the immortals on white clouds.

The Zhuangzi also describes a divine person living far away who eats wind, drinks dew, and rides clouds and mist. The book sees life and death as natural changes, like the seasons.

Chuci

The Chuci, a collection of poems from the 3rd–2nd century BCE, mentions xian a few times. It talks about famous Daoist immortals like Chi Song and Wang Qiao, who were said to have flown away and become immortals.

Han dynasty xian texts

In the later years of the Han dynasty, the idea of becoming a xian became more popular.

Liezi

The Liezi, possibly written in the 3rd century CE, uses the term xiansheng ("immortal sage") a few times. It describes a Divine Man who eats wind and drinks dew.

Shenxian zhuan

The Shenxian zhuan is a collection of stories about xian. It talks about different ways to achieve immortality, like controlling breath, eating special foods, practicing certain arts, and making elixirs.

Śūraṅgama Sūtra

The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, a Buddhist text, talks about ten types of xian who live between the world of gods and humans.

In religions

Chinese folk religion

In old times, people in China thought xian were special souls. These souls could be old leaders, ancestors, or good people who were not rich or famous. Later, Taoism changed this idea. It taught that xian were holy people who could go to heaven by following special ways to keep their spirit alive.

Taoism

Taoism is a religion with many gods and holy beings. These holy beings are split into two groups: gods and xian, who are like immortals. Gods are born divine, but xian gain great powers and live forever by following the Dao, a special way of living.

Some Taoists believed that leaders and ancestors could become xian. They also believed that anyone could become an immortal by doing good actions and praying together in temples.

In art and culture

Xian, or immortals, have been important in art and culture for a very long time. The oldest pictures and writings about them go back to the fifth or fourth centuries BCE. In these early pictures, Xian were shown as creatures that were part bird and part human, or part snake and part human. They could fly and were often shown with wings.

During the Eastern Han dynasty, Xian were often shown in tomb paintings as mixtures of birds, humans, and reptiles. They were thought to help guide people’s souls to a paradise after death. These Xian were shown with animals like deer, tigers, dragons, birds, and special heavenly horses. They were also shown with unusual features, like very large ears, long hair, and marked faces.

Some Taoists believed that by following certain practices, they could become Xian and live for a very long time. Xian were seen as kind spirits who brought good luck and help to people. Many people thought that becoming a Xian was a great adventure. In art, Xian were often shown wearing feathers and living in the skies, traveling the universe and doing amazing things.

Depictions of xians, sennins and tiên in art

The idea of xians—immortal beings with magical powers—has inspired many artworks. These artworks show xians in many forms, often flying through the sky, riding animals, or playing musical instruments. They appear in paintings, carvings, and even modern movies and games.

Xians are popular characters in Chinese fantasy stories and games. A special type of story called xianxia focuses on characters who train to become xians in magical worlds. Some famous examples include video games like The Legend of Sword and Fairy and Xuanyuan Sword, as well as films like Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain.