Xiongnu

The Xiongnu were a group of tribes that lived on the wide grasslands of eastern Eurasian Steppe from about the 3rd century BC until the late 1st century AD. They were led by a powerful ruler named Modu Chanyu who started their empire around 209 BC.

After defeating another group called the Yuezhi, the Xiongnu became very strong and controlled large areas including parts of what are now Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Xinjiang.

Their relationship with the ancient Chinese dynasties had times of peace and times of war. Eventually, the powerful Han dynasty defeated the Xiongnu after many years of fighting. This led the Xiongnu to split into two groups, and many were moved to live inside the Han lands.

Later, people from the Xiongnu helped start new states in northern China, such as Han-Zhao, Xia, and maybe Northern Liang, during a time called the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Scientists have studied the Xiongnu and found links with other groups like the Saka, Sarmatians, and possibly the Huns, though many questions about their origins and language remain uncertain.

Name

The Xiongnu were called "fierce slaves" in old Chinese records. They were nomadic people who rode horses. The Han Chinese saw them as invaders from the north. The name "Xiongnu" comes from an old Chinese word. Historians still study its exact meaning and pronunciation.

Predecessors

Before the Xiongnu, the lands of central and east Mongolia were home to people of the Slab Grave Culture. These people were ancestors of the Xiongnu. They mixed with people from Western Eurasia to form the Xiongnu confederation. Other nomadic tribes, like the Xianyun and Rong, also lived in the area and sometimes fought with early Chinese states.

Early history

The Xiongnu began to form under leaders like Touman around 220 BC. After clashes with the strong Qin dynasty of China, Touman's son Modu Chanyu united the Xiongnu into a powerful group. This made them a major force, able to challenge the growing Han dynasty of China.

State formation

Modu Chanyu expanded the Xiongnu Empire in all directions. He took lands back from the Qin and conquered other nomadic groups. When he died in 174 BC, the Xiongnu were a strong force. They could attack the Han capital and make treaties as equals.

Xiongnu hierarchy

The Xiongnu were organized like an army. The ruler was called the chanyu. Below him were kings and officials, all in a clear order. This structure helped them manage their large territories and many followers.

Marriage diplomacy with Han dynasty

To prevent war, the Han dynasty sometimes sent women to marry Xiongnu leaders. These marriages, along with gifts of silk and other goods, helped keep peace between the two groups for many years, even though tensions often returned.

Han–Xiongnu wars

When peace ended, the Han started big military campaigns against the Xiongnu. Leaders like Emperor Wu led these wars. The Han general Huo Qubing won important battles. These victories pushed the Xiongnu back and helped the Han control key trade routes.

Xiongnu Civil War (60–53 BC)

After a chanyu died, different family lines fought over who should rule. This caused a civil war among Xiongnu leaders. Some leaders submitted to Han authority, while others kept fighting from far away.

Tributary relations with the Han

Some Xiongnu leaders, like Huhanye, agreed to become vassals of the Han. This meant they had to visit the Han capital, send hostages, and offer gifts. In return, they got valuable gifts and support from the Han emperor.

Southern Xiongnu and Northern Xiongnu

As relations changed, the Xiongnu split into two groups. The Southern Xiongnu lived near Han borders and relied on Han support. The Northern Xiongnu kept fighting from farther north. The Northern group was eventually defeated and scattered by the Han and other nomadic tribes.

Descendants and later states in northern China

Over time, many Xiongnu mixed with local people and adopted Chinese ways of life. Some Xiongnu descendants later helped found or were part of various states during the Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China. Their distinct identity slowly faded as they became part of broader Chinese society.

Significance

The Xiongnu confederation lasted a long time for a group of nomadic people. They raided the Central Plain to get goods and to make the people there give them regular payments called tribute. The Xiongnu ruler’s power came from controlling this tribute, which he used to reward his supporters. The Han and Xiongnu empires grew at the same time because the Xiongnu needed the Han’s tribute.

One weakness of the Xiongnu was their way of choosing a new leader. If a ruler died and his son was too young to lead, power went to the ruler’s brother. This worked at first but later caused problems. The first time this happened, around 60 BC, the weaker group moved south, submitted to the Central Plain, and used the help they got to defeat the northern group and bring the empire back together. The second time, around 47 AD, this plan did not work, and the Xiongnu stayed divided.

Ethnolinguistic origins

Historians do not agree on whether the Xiongnu were of Turkic or Mongolian origin. Some old Chinese records might show that the Xiongnu spoke a different language from the Xianbei, who were of Mongolian or Paramongolian origin. But the true origin of the Xiongnu is still a mystery.

Most people think that the Xiongnu empire was made up of many different groups of people. There are many ideas about what language the Xiongnu leaders might have spoken, but no one really knows for sure.

Proposed link to the Huns

Iranian theories

Yeniseian theories

One idea from the middle of the 1900s says the Xiongnu spoke a Yeniseian language. This idea grew from a song found in old Chinese writing that looks like it might be Yeniseian. Some experts think that a group called the Jie, who were part of the western Xiongnu, might have spoken a Yeniseian language. They think the main Xiongnu language might have been Turkic or Yeniseian, but the Xiongnu were definitely made up of many different groups.

Another expert looked at Xiongnu words and thought they looked a lot like words from Yeniseian languages.

Turkic theories

Mongolic theories

Multiple ethnicities

Since the 1800s, many Western experts have thought the Xiongnu might have been a mix of many different language groups. Many believe the Xiongnu confederation was a mix of many ethnic and language groups, and we still do not fully know what language they spoke.

Chinese books connect some Turkic groups to the Xiongnu, but not all. Some of these groups might have mixed with the Xiongnu. Old writings also link many other nomadic groups to the Xiongnu.

Some Uyghur leaders said they came from Xiongnu leaders, but many modern experts do not think modern Uyghurs are direct descendants of the old Uyghur leaders. Instead, they think modern Uyghurs come from many different groups.

Language isolate theories

Turkologist Gerhard Doerfer said there might be no link between the Xiongnu language and any other known language.

Pronunciation of 匈奴
Old Chinese (318 BC):	*hoŋ-nâ
Eastern Han Chinese:	*hɨoŋ-nɑ
Middle Chinese:	*hɨoŋ-nuo
Modern Mandarin:	[ɕjʊ́ŋ nǔ]
Sources: Schuessler (2014:264) & Zhengzhang Shangfang.

Geographic origins

The original home of the Xiongnu people is still a mystery. Since the 1960s, scientists have searched for clues by studying old burial sites from the Early Iron Age. No single area has been proven to be their home.

Archaeology

In the 1920s, a researcher named Pyotr Kozlov studied important tombs at the Noin-Ula burial site in northern Mongolia. These tombs date to around the first century AD. Other Xiongnu sites have been found in Inner Mongolia, like the Ordos culture. Some portraits from these sites show that Chinese and Xiongnu art influenced each other. Well-preserved remains from Mongolia and southern Siberia show a mix of East Asian and West Eurasian features.

Today, four fully studied cemeteries exist: Ivolga, Dyrestui, Burkhan Tolgoi, and Daodunzi. Thousands of tombs have also been recorded in Transbaikalia and Mongolia. Researchers studying a Xiongnu cemetery in Arkhangai Province found that some tombs contained items suggesting connections to the Xiongnu leaders.

Genetics

Maternal lineages

Studies show that most Xiongnu maternal lines come from East Asia, but some also come from Western Eurasian areas. One study found that 89% of Xiongnu maternal lines were from East Asia, while 11% were from Western Eurasia. Another study found that about 37.5% were from Western Eurasia. These studies suggest that the Xiongnu people were very similar to groups that lived before them, called the Slab Grave culture.

Some examples of maternal lines found in Xiongnu remains include D4b2b4, N9a2a, G3a3, D4a6, D4b2b2b, and U2e1.

Paternal lineages

About half of the Xiongnu paternal lines were from Western Eurasian groups, while the other half were from East Asian groups. This is different from the groups that lived before them, which mostly had East Asian paternal lines. This may show that new groups with Western Eurasian paternal lines joined the Xiongnu, or that marriages and cultural connections favored these lines.

Some examples of paternal lines in Xiongnu remains include C2, Q1b, R1, R1b, O3a, O3a3b2, J2a, J1a, and E1b1b1a.

High-status Xiongnu leaders mostly had East Asian paternal lines, while lower-status members had more diverse lines, including Western Eurasian ones.

Autosomal ancestry

Studies show that Xiongnu people had mixed ancestry from both East Asia and Western Eurasia. One study found that Xiongnu individuals came from two main groups: one mostly from East Asia and the other with a mix of East Asian and Western Eurasian ancestry. Later Xiongnu groups had even more mixed ancestry, including influences from Sarmatian and Han Chinese groups.

One Xiongnu individual studied in 2024 had ancestry only from Ancient Northeast Asians, similar to later Turkic groups.

Relationship between ethnicity and status among the Xiongnu

The Xiongnu people had mixed ancestries, but their social status seemed to affect their genetic makeup. Lower-status members had more diverse ancestries, often related to the Chandman/Uyuk culture or a mix of Chandman/Uyuk and Ancient Northeast Asian groups. Higher-status members, especially females, mostly had East Asian ancestry from the Ulaanzuukh/Slab Grave culture or the Xianbei. One high-status leader had a mix of Slab Grave, Han, and Saka ancestries.

Culture

Art

The Xiongnu culture had many styles, all different from the Han people and other groups in the north. Some of their art showed animals, like a tiger carrying dead prey. This kind of art was also found in nearby areas, but with different details. For example, in a place called Maoqinggou, the art was simpler and rounder. Xiongnu art sometimes looked similar to art from the Saka and Scythian groups, but there were differences. For instance, Xiongnu bird drawings usually had smaller eyes and beaks and showed ears, while Saka birds had larger eyes and beaks and no ears.

Rock art and writing

Rock drawings from places like the Yin and Helan Mountains are very old. These drawings were mostly carved and only a few were painted. Chinese records say the Xiongnu did not write like the Chinese, but around the 2nd century BC, a Chinese person taught their leaders to write letters to China on wooden tablets. They also used special wooden pieces to keep track of things. Archaeologists found carved symbols at Xiongnu burial sites that look like old letters used by Turkic people much later.

Religion and diet

The Xiongnu called the sky "Chēnglí," which was their way of saying "Heaven." They were nomadic people who raised animals and traded horses with China, so they mostly ate mutton, horse meat, and wild geese. Evidence suggests that some Xiongnu people may have known about Buddhism, as small Buddhist prayer beads were found in one of their graves.