Analects

The Analects, also known as the Sayings of Confucius, is an ancient Chinese philosophical text made up of ideas and sayings from Confucius and his followers. Scholars think most of the book was written during the Warring States period (475–221 BC), and it took its final shape during the middle of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). At first, it was just seen as a comment on the Five Classics, but later it became a very important book in Confucianism.

By the time of the late Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), the Analects became even more important than the Five Classics and was named one of the "Four Books". For over two thousand years, it has been one of the most read and studied books in China, shaping thoughts and values across East Asia.

Confucius taught that a country’s good health depends on the good character of its people, starting with good leaders. He believed people could develop good character through ren and that the first step was filial piety—showing love and respect to parents and older siblings. He also taught that people should learn to balance their own wishes with li, proper behavior and respect for others. Confucius thought a leader needed de, or virtue, above all else.

His main aim was to teach students to become ethically well-cultivated men—people who act with dignity, speak properly, and always do the right thing.

History

Creation of the text

The Analects began as notes taken by Confucius's students during their conversations with him. After Confucius died in 479 BC, these notes were gathered and edited by his followers. The book was named Lunyu, meaning "edited conversations" or "selected speeches."

Scholars have debated when and how the Analects was written. Some believe different parts were written at different times over about two hundred years, during a period called the Warring States period (476–221 BC). Others think some sayings might not be from Confucius himself. Ancient manuscripts found in the 2010s, dating back to before 300 BCE, show that the tradition of collecting Confucius's sayings was already well established by then.

By the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the Analects was widely known and used throughout China. It became one of the central texts of Confucianism, especially during the Song dynasty (960–1279) when it was recognized as one of the important books for studying Confucian ideas.

Textual history

There were different versions of the Analects in the early Han dynasty. One version, called the "Lu version," had twenty chapters. Another, the "Qi version," had twenty-two chapters, including two extra ones. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (157–141 BC), a third version called the "Old Text" was found. It had twenty-one chapters and used older writing styles.

Over time, these versions were combined. Zhang Yu, a tutor to Emperor Cheng of Han (d. 5 BC), created a mixed version using the Lu version as the base and adding parts from the Qi version. This became the standard text we know today as the Analects.

Archaeologists have found ancient copies of the Analects written around 50 BC. These copies show that the text was still changing and growing even after it was first written down.

Importance within Confucianism

For much of the Han dynasty, the Analects was not considered as important as the Five Classics, which were the main Confucian texts. However, its popularity grew, and by the Eastern Han dynasty, it was commonly studied by schoolchildren and anyone learning to read. It became one of the central texts of Confucianism, especially after the Song dynasty when it was identified as one of the Four Books.

The style of the Analects influenced later Confucian writers, who often tried to write in a similar way.

Commentaries

Since the Han dynasty, readers have understood the Analects by studying commentaries—explanations written by scholars. Two commentaries have been especially important: one by He Yan from the 3rd century AD, and another by Zhu Xi from the 12th century. He Yan tried to show how Confucian and Daoist ideas could work together. Zhu Xi used ideas from other Confucian books to explain the Analects and help people understand its messages about personal growth and nature. His commentary became the standard for many years.

Contents

Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides the Analects. The main biography of Confucius comes from Records of the Grand Historian, but because this history includes material that cannot be verified and may be legendary, the Analects is considered the most reliable source of information about Confucius. Confucius saw himself as a preserver of traditions from the early Zhou dynasty, and claimed not to have created anything new.

Confucius believed in respecting ghosts and spirits but keeping them at a distance. He thought people should base their values on moral philosophy, tradition, and natural love for others. A key idea in his teachings was ren, which means a general state of virtue. Confucius’s students often asked him to define ren, but he usually responded with examples of behavior that show ren, like speaking carefully, being courageous, and loving others. He taught that people could develop ren by imagining themselves in others’ situations and by showing devotion to their parents and older siblings. He also believed that self-discipline, learned through proper rituals and respect for others, was important for cultivating ren.

Confucius thought that good rulers should lead by example and educate their people with love and concern, not just laws and punishment. He believed that social problems happened when leaders did not behave as they should. He emphasized the importance of education, teaching that balance between study and reflection was key. Confucius taught that students should respect their teachers and that teachers should be knowledgeable and ethical. His goal was to help people become morally good and integrity in all they do.

Notable translations

The Analects has been translated into many languages, helping people all over the world learn about Confucius' teachings.

English

Some well-known English translations include:

• Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean, Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted by Cosimo in 2006. ISBN 978-1-60520-643-1
• The Sayings of Confucius. Translated by Lyall, Leonard A. London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1909. OCLC (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1435673).
• The Analects of Confucius. Translated by Soothill, William Edward. Yokohama: Fukuin Printing. 1910.; rpt. London: Oxford University Press (1937).
• The Analects on 2015-06-16. Retrieved 2011-09-21. Rpt. (2000), New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41204-2
• Confucius, The Analects (Lun yü). Translated by Lau, D. C. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 1979.; rpt. with Chinese text, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press (1979).
• The Analects of Confucius. Translated by Huang, Chi-chung. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0195112764.
• The Analects of Confucius. Translated by Leys, Simon. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. 1997. ISBN 978-0393316995.
• Ames, Roger T. (1999). The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. Translated by Rosemont, Henry. New York: Ballantine Books (Penguin Random House). ISBN 978-0345434074.
• Brooks, E. Bruce (2001). The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Followers. Translated by Brooks, Taeko. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231104302.
• Analects of Confucius: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries. Translated by Slingerland, Edward. Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. 2003. ISBN 978-0872206359.
• The Analects of Confucius. Translated by Watson, Burton. New York: Columbia University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-231-14164-2.

French

French translations include:

• Entretiens de Confucius [Conversations of Confucius]. Les Quatre Livres (in French). Translated by Couvreur, Séraphin (3rd ed.). Sien Hsien: Mission Catholique. 1930.
• Entretiens de Confucius [Conversations of Confucius] (in French). Translated by Cheng, Anne. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. 1981.
• Les Entretiens de Confucius [The Conversations of Confucius] (in French). Translated by Ryckmans, Pierre. Paris: Gallimard. 1987. English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997), The Analects of Confucius (New York: W. W. Norton).

Japanese

One Japanese translation is:

• Yoshikawa, Kōjirō 吉川幸次郎 (1978). Rongo 論語 [Lunyu], 3 vols. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbun. Rpt. 2 vols, Asahi Shinbun (1996).

Cultural applications

The Analects and its explanations are used in many cultural activities across East and South-East Asia, including places like China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is especially important in education.

The Analects has also shaped traditional martial arts in these areas. Even today, the ideas from the text affect how these martial arts are practiced and taught, including their social and political aspects.