Ancient Egyptian funerary practices

The ancient Egyptians had special ways to prepare people for life after death, which they believed was very important. They thought these practices would help a person live forever. One key part of their traditions was mummifying the body, which meant preserving it carefully so it could last a long time.

They also used magic spells to protect the person in the next world and placed special items called grave goods in the tomb. These items were things they thought the person might need in the afterlife, like food or tools.

Over many years, the exact way they did these things changed, but the main ideas stayed the same. Preparing the body, using magic, and putting grave goods in the tomb were all important parts of an Egyptian funeral.

History

Although no writing survived from the Predynastic period in Egypt (around 6000–3150 BCE), scholars believe that the importance of keeping the body whole began during that time. This explains why people did not burn their dead, unlike nearby cultures, but buried them instead. Some scholars think the people of that time may have worried that bodies could come back to life if not treated properly.

Early burials were in simple, shallow pits, often with a few items like jewelry, food, games, and tools placed nearby. Over time, graves became more complex. Bodies were sometimes placed in baskets, and later in wooden or clay coffins. The grandest tombs were large stone boxes called sarcophagi. These graves often held items such as jewelry, food, games, and sharp tools.

From the Predynastic period through the final Ptolemaic dynasty, people strongly believed in life after death and being together with others in the afterlife. This belief in an afterlife shaped how they buried their dead, placing items in tombs that they thought would be needed in the next world. The Egyptian beliefs in an afterlife became well known through trade and cultural sharing, influencing other civilizations and religions, especially through the Silk Road. Egyptians believed people could enter the afterlife if they had a purpose there. For example, kings were thought to be allowed in because of their role as rulers.

Human sacrifices in early royal tombs show the idea of serving a purpose in the afterlife. Those sacrificed were likely meant to serve the king after death. Later, figurines and wall paintings took the place of human victims. Some of these figurines may have been made to look like certain people, so they could follow the king after they died.

Not only the lower classes but also noble classes believed that kings, who became like gods after death, could help them have an afterlife. This belief lasted from the predynastic period through the Old Kingdom.

Although many spells from earlier texts were kept, the new Coffin Texts added new spells and changes to make the new funerary text more relatable to nobles. In the First Intermediate period, the importance of the king decreased. Funerary texts, once only for royalty, became more available to everyone. Kings were no longer seen as gods who alone could grant entry to the afterlife; instead, they were just rulers who, like others, would face death and move on.

Funerary rituals

See also: Dance in ancient Egypt § Funeral Dances

Greek historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus wrote about the ways ancient Egyptians cared for people after they died. Before preserving a person’s body, family and friends would show their sadness in special ways, sometimes wearing mud on their faces and walking through the town while showing their grief.

After preserving the body, there were special ceremonies where people acted out stories from their beliefs. These stories included a tale about a god named Osiris and his brother Set. The ceremonies also included processions, where the body was carried to the tomb by animals, and priests would perform rituals to help the person’s spirit in the next life. During these rituals, priests would imagine speaking for the person and offer gifts to support them in their journey.

A funeral procession depicted in the Book of the Dead (Extract from the Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, c. 1250 BCE)

Mummification

Main articles: Mummy § Mummification and rank, and List of Egyptian mummies

The ancient Egyptians believed that preserving a person’s body was very important for their journey in the afterlife. They thought that a part of the person, called the ka, would return to the body if it was treated in a special way. This treatment was called mummification.

To prepare a body for the afterlife, priests used a natural salt called natron to dry it out. This process could take up to seventy days. During this time, the body was treated and wrapped carefully. People could choose different levels of this process depending on what they could afford. The most common way involved removing some of the body’s organs and placing them in special jars for protection. The body was then cleaned, stuffed with natron, and wrapped in linen cloth with prayers and special scents.

Another simpler way of mummification did not remove the organs but used special oils and natron to preserve the body. The least expensive way was to clean the organs and then use natron for seventy days before giving the body back to the family.

Animals were also sometimes preserved in a similar way. Pets were treated this way to honor them, and some animals were preserved to represent gods or to be offerings for the afterlife.

Burial rituals

After preparing the mummy, a priest would perform a special ceremony called the opening of the mouth. This ceremony used a ceremonial tool to help the mummy breathe and speak in the afterlife. The priest would also say spells to help the mummy's arms, legs, and other parts work.

The body of an important person, like a king, would then be moved to a special temple. There, more prayers and rituals were done to prepare the person for their journey. The king's mummy was placed inside a pyramid with lots of food, drinks, furniture, clothes, and jewelry for use in the afterlife. The pyramid was then sealed, but the king's spirit could still move freely. After death, kings were believed to become gods and could be honored in temples.

The ancient Egyptians believed that people who had passed away could still care about their living family. They thought special parts of a person, called the Ba and the Ka, allowed the dead to help their family. Even everyday people wanted their families to have a proper burial. Usually, bodies were wrapped in cloth and buried in the desert with simple items for comfort in the afterlife. Most common people could not afford mummification and were often buried in mass graves with only a few personal objects. These burial sites were found in many parts of the desert, some of which are now places where people live.

Tombs

The tomb was a special place for the person who had passed away. It helped protect them and also let family and friends do special rituals to help them live forever. Ancient Egyptians took tombs very seriously and built them carefully. Every tomb had two important parts: a burial chamber for the body and some special items, and a place where people could gather together.

Usually, tombs were built close to where the person lived, often in dry desert areas. Early tombs were simple pits in the sand, but later they became bigger and more complex. Over time, these simple pits turned into small mudbrick buildings called mastabas. For kings, these grew into huge step pyramids and then the famous pyramids we know today. These big pyramids helped protect the king's tomb and were also linked to beliefs about the sun god, Ra. Most tombs were built on the west side of the Nile River, which was thought to be the place where the dead rested. The place of the tomb depended on the person's importance, with important people buried closer to the king.

Coffins

Main article: Ancient Egyptian coffins

After preserving the body, the ancient Egyptians placed it inside a wooden coffin. These coffins were beautifully painted and designed for each person. In the Old Kingdom, each coffin showed the person’s title, a list of gifts for the afterlife, a special space for their spirit, and painted eyes so they could see.

In the Middle Kingdom, coffins were like small tombs, painted with pictures of protective goddesses such as Isis and Nephthys. They also included images of the four sons of Horus and prayers for the person’s journey. Later, coffins were shaped like the body, with the person’s face and hair painted on them for a personal touch. A large stone box called a sarcophagus was sometimes used to keep the coffin safe.

Damnation

The ancient Egyptians believed that to reach the afterlife, special steps had to be taken. One important step was embalming the body correctly. They thought a force called the Ka would not return to the body if it was not prepared properly. Without this, the body might decay and the person could not reach the afterlife.

If these steps were not followed, the Egyptians believed the person would face a very bad end. This was called "damnation." Instead of a peaceful afterlife with gods, they thought the person would face a place of chaos, fire, and struggle. This idea came from stories in books about the underworld, which showed different ways this bad place might look.

Judgment

The ancient Egyptians believed that after someone died, they had to go through a special judgment to enter the afterlife. This idea is described in a book called the Book of the Dead, which contains spells to help the person who passed away.

In pictures from old Egyptian ruins, the judgment looked like this: the person’s heart was weighed against a feather. If the heart was heavier, it meant the person had done bad things. A god named Osiris helped decide if the person was good or bad. The person would tell Osiris they had not done anything wrong. Forty-two gods would then decide if the person’s life was good enough to enter the afterlife. If the person passed, their family and friends would celebrate.

Funerary texts

Main article: Ancient Egyptian funerary texts

Ancient Egyptians put special books with magic spells inside tombs to help people in the afterlife. These books contained instructions and spells to guide and protect the person after death. At first, only kings could use these special spells, called the Pyramid Texts. They were written on the walls of pyramids to help the king live again.

Later, important people and rich families could also use similar spells, called Coffin Texts. These were written on coffins. Finally, during a later time, these spells became known as the Book of the Dead. Wealthy people could have their own special book made just for them, while others used books that were made for many people, with spaces to add their names.

Burial goods

The items placed in tombs with ancient Egyptians changed over time, but they always had the same purpose: to help and protect the person in the afterlife.

From the very beginning, all Egyptians were buried with some everyday things they might need after death, like bowls, combs, and food. Richer people could have jewelry, furniture, and other valuable items in their tombs, which sometimes made them targets for thieves. In early times, tombs were filled with many objects from daily life, including furniture, jewelry, and stone and pottery containers. As tombs grew more complex, there was a need for more space to store these burial goods.

Later, wealthy people were buried in wooden or stone coffins, and the number of items placed with them decreased. Sometimes only small copper models of tools and containers were included. Wooden models showing everyday activities became popular, as people hoped to continue these activities in the afterlife. New items like small clay statues called shabtis and carved beetles called heart scarabs appeared later. These were thought to help protect the person or do work for them in the afterlife. By the time of Ramesses II, tombs often contained only special items made just for burial, and some tombs had hundreds of shabti statues and other protective figures.

Funerary boats

Funerary boats were used in some ancient Egyptian burials. Boats were important in Egyptian beliefs because they were thought to be how the gods traveled across the sky and to the netherworld. One kind of boat was used for trips to holy places like Abydos. A big funerary boat was found near a pyramid built for Khufu. These boats were usually made from wood and papyrus reeds tied together. The most common path for the boats was the River Nile. The boat carried the coffin and often included a dog, which they believed would guide the person to the afterlife. Most boats were about 20 feet long, but the boat for Khufu was much larger, about 144 feet with 12 oars.

At the Ure Museum, you can see an Egyptian funerary boat that shows what a typical tomb offering looked like. This boat represents the idea that death was a journey by boat across the River Nile, connecting the North and South. The boat was added to the museum’s collection in 1923 from the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology.

The study of ancient Egyptian mummies today

By studying ancient Egyptian mummies, scientists and historians can learn many interesting facts about life in ancient Egypt. They use special tools like x-rays to look inside the mummies without damaging them. These tools help experts understand what kinds of diseases people had and how they were treated. By examining the bones, scientists can also figure out the average height and lifespan of people back then.

Chemists have been studying the materials used to preserve the mummies. In recent years, they have discovered the different oils, waxes, and herbs that were part of the special mixtures used. In 2019, an old embalming workshop was found at Saqqara, and in 2022, scientists analyzed the contents of containers from that site. In 2023, they also studied materials found in special jars from the time of the 18th Dynasty. These discoveries show that some of the ingredients came from places far outside of Egypt.

Depictions in modern culture

The book Pharaoh by Bolesław Prus, written in 1895, shows the process of mummification and funeral customs during the end of the 20th Dynasty and the New Kingdom in ancient Egypt.