Ancient Egyptian race controversy

The question of the race of the people of ancient Egypt has been a topic of debate for many years. This discussion began in the 18th and 19th centuries when people started using early ideas about race, often looking at the size and shape of skulls and bodies to decide where people belonged. Many different ideas were shared about who the ancient Egyptians were and where their culture came from.

Some believed that ancient Egyptian culture was shaped by people from North Africa, the Horn of Africa, or West Asia. Others thought that people from Nubia or even Europe had big influences. In more recent times, some people have questioned the race of famous ancient Egyptians, like the pharaoh shown in the Great Sphinx of Giza, Tutankhamun, the queen Tiye, and the Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII.

Most Western scholars today say it is wrong to call ancient Egypt either a "white" or "black" civilization. They explain that using today’s ideas of black or white to describe ancient Egypt does not fit because these ideas did not exist back then. These scholars also say that ancient Egypt was not made up of just one kind of people. Skin colour was different among people from Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and the nearby area of Nubia, and different groups took power at various times.

International scholars, like those who worked on the General History of Africa for UNESCO, also think Egypt was an African civilisation with a mixed group of people. They believe the population came mostly from the Sahara and had many skin colours from both north and south of this area. Recent research continues to show that Egypt had both African and Eurasian people, with early populations moving into the Nile Valley from places far to the south.

Background

In the 1700s and 1800s, people debated about who the ancient Egyptians were and where they came from. Some thought they looked like people from Africa because of their skin color and features. Others believed they were more related to people from Europe or other nearby areas.

These debates happened at a time when some people were trying to end slavery, and the discussion about the ancient Egyptians' race became mixed up with those bigger arguments. Scholars looked at old paintings, writings, and even mummies to try to understand the truth. Different experts had different ideas, and the question remained a big topic of discussion for many years.

1974 UNESCO committee

Main article: General History of Africa

See also: UNESCO statements on race

In 1974, a meeting was held at UNESCO in Cairo to discuss the people of ancient Egypt. During this meeting, Cheikh Anta Diop suggested that the people of ancient Egypt were all the same and had darker skin. Many others disagreed with his ideas, saying there wasn’t enough information to know for sure.

The meeting included many different opinions. Some thought the people of ancient Egypt came from areas north and south of the Sahara and had different skin colors. Most did not agree with Diop’s views. One person even said the earliest people in Egypt had lighter skin. The discussion showed that there were many different ideas about the race of ancient Egyptians.

2025 UNESCO multidisciplinary review

In 2025, UNESCO brought together 60 experts from 28 countries to study ancient Egypt. The group, led by Augustin Holl, agreed that Egypt is part of Africa. They studied Egypt’s past and found strong links between ancient Egyptians and people from Africa south of the Sahara.

The review highlighted how ancient Egypt’s culture and people were shaped by movements from Africa. Studies showed connections between ancient Egyptians and groups from places like the Sahel and sub-Saharan Africa. Experts also looked at language, genetics, and archaeology to understand these links better.

Biological anthropologist S.O.Y. Keita explained that ancient Egyptians came from local Nilotic and Saharan groups, with some influence from nearby Arab pastoral groups. He noted that certain genetic traits found in Egypt also appear in tropical East Africa.

Archaeologist David Wengrow pointed out that recent studies have placed Egypt more firmly within an African context, using linguistics, anthropology, and genetics.

Egyptian historian H. A. A. Ibrahim studied ancient structures in Upper Egypt and found similarities with buildings in sub-Saharan Africa.

Geneticist Jean Phillipe Gourdine reviewed studies showing African connections in ancient Egyptian remains. He emphasized the importance of considering Africa’s geological history, including movements of people from the Green Sahara and changes in Lake Chad.

Linguistic studies placed the Egyptian language within the Afro-Asiatic family, which includes languages spoken across Africa and the Near East. There is debate about where this language family originated, but many experts believe it started in Africa.

Other scholars praised the work of Cheikh Anta Diop for encouraging a multidisciplinary approach to African history.

Position of modern scholarship

Main article: Population history of Egypt

See also: DNA history of Egypt

Modern scholars who have studied ancient Egyptian culture and population history have responded to questions about the identity of the ancient Egyptians in different ways.

Since the late 20th century, as science about human populations has improved, most experts have stopped thinking of "race" as a useful way to study human biology.

Most scholars today say that the people of early southern Egypt came mostly from northeast Africa, including places like the Sudan, tropical Africa and the Sahara. They note that people in ancient Egypt looked different depending on where they lived. People in southern Egypt shared more traits with people from Sudan and other areas to the south, while people in northern Egypt shared more traits with people from the Levant and around the Mediterranean.

Scholarly views on bias

Scholars have talked about how old ideas about race affected early studies of ancient Egypt. Some said these studies were biased because of colonial thinking and did not include enough views from other parts of the world. For example, Cheikh Anta Diop wrote that many ideas about ancient Egypt were shaped by these biased views.

Others pointed out that past studies sometimes did not treat Egypt as part of Africa. They said ancient Egypt shared many traditions with other African groups and was deeply connected to the northeast part of Africa. Some recent studies have tried to look at this more closely, but they have also been questioned for their methods and how they were used in arguments about race. Scholars worry that these studies can sometimes support unfair ideas about different groups of people.

Present-day controversies

Today, discussions about the identity of the ancient Egyptians are complex and often avoided by scholars. These debates mainly happen in public spaces and focus on a few key points.

Different scholars have used ancient Greek and Roman writings to describe the looks of early Egyptians. Some accounts suggest similarities between Egyptians and others, while others link them more closely to different groups. For example, the Greek historian Herodotus described Egyptians in specific ways, and later writers like Diodorus Siculus and Arrian also shared their observations. These historical descriptions continue to be discussed among researchers.

The idea of where the ancient Egyptians came from has also been debated. Some believe their ancestral home was linked to regions far to the south and west of Egypt. Recent studies suggest connections to areas in modern northeast Africa, based on goods and animals shown in Egyptian art.

There have been many debates about famous figures from ancient Egypt, such as Tutankhamun and Cleopatra. Different interpretations of their appearances and backgrounds exist, influenced by modern perspectives and limited ancient evidence. For instance, some have questioned reconstructions of Tutankhamun's face, while others have explored Cleopatra’s heritage, noting that ancient sources describe her primarily as Greek but acknowledge Egypt’s diverse population at the time.

The Great Sphinx of Giza’s appearance has also sparked discussion, with some suggesting it reflects certain features, though most experts link it to the pharaoh Khafra.

The term used by ancient Egyptians for their land, kmt, means "the black land," referring to the fertile soil of the Nile. This term was not used to describe people but rather the land itself. Scholars have different views on what this term implies about the Egyptians’ identity and connections to other African regions.

Ancient Egyptian art, including paintings and sculptures, gives clues about the people but often uses symbolic colors rather than realistic ones. Depictions of different groups, such as Egyptians and Nubians, show variations in skin color and features, reflecting both artistic tradition and possible ethnic differences. Some researchers argue that Egyptian art made clear distinctions between groups, while others see symbolic meanings in the colors used.

Overall, the study of ancient Egypt’s identity remains a topic of ongoing research and discussion among historians and archaeologists.

Historical hypotheses

Since the middle of the 1900s, scientists have stopped using old ways of thinking about race, and most experts now believe that applying modern ideas of race to ancient Egypt is not right. Today, most scholars think that Egyptian civilization grew up naturally in the Nile Valley (see population history of Egypt). In 1974, a meeting organized by UNESCO led many to agree that the ancient Egyptian people were from the Nile Valley, coming from areas north and south of the Sahara.

There have been many different ideas about the race of ancient Egyptians. Some believed they were closely connected to people in Africa, while others thought they had ties to people from other areas. One idea is that ancient Egypt was a unified "Black" civilization. This idea came from a meeting in 1974, where some agreed that ancient Egypt was from Africa. However, many experts had questions about this idea, saying more research was needed. Others thought the Egyptians came from places far away, like Mesopotamia, but modern scholars mostly think that Egyptian civilization developed on its own in the Nile Valley.

The current view among scholars is that Egyptian civilization developed independently in the Nile Valley region.

Reactions in modern Egypt

Egyptian expert Fekri Hassan wrote in 2021 that old ideas about races are wrong and that Africa has many different people. He said being African doesn't mean looking a certain way because Africa has lots of variety.

In 2023, American comedian Kevin Hart had to cancel a planned tour of Egypt after some people in Egypt were upset about things he said about their history. In response, Egyptian expert Zahi Hawass said that Africans did not build the pyramids. He has talked about these topics before and shared his view that the people who built the pyramids were not from Africa.