Attila

Attila, often called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. He led an empire made up of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids in Central and Eastern Europe.

Along with his brother Bleda, Attila took over leadership after their uncle Rugila died. Bleda passed away in 445, leaving Attila as the sole ruler. He became a major threat to both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

Attila crossed the Danube River twice and attacked areas known as the Balkans but could not capture Constantinople. In 441, he invaded the Eastern Roman Empire, which made him feel powerful enough to attack the West. He moved into Roman Gaul, or modern-day France, in 451, reaching Orléans before being stopped at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

Later, he invaded Italy and caused a lot of damage in the northern parts but could not take Rome. Attila planned more attacks on the Romans but died in 453. After his death, his adviser Ardaric led a revolt, and the Hunnic Empire quickly fell apart. Attila became a famous figure in Germanic heroic legend.

Etymology

Most scholars believe the name Attila comes from an East Germanic root. It is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic word atta, meaning "father", with the suffix -ila, meaning "little". This makes the name mean "little father". This idea was first suggested by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 1800s.

Some other scholars think the name might have a Turkic origin. Different ideas include it coming from words meaning "great" or "sea", or being related to words for "horseman" or "horse". However, many experts find these ideas hard to accept.

Historian George VI of the United Kingdom had a name from Greece, and Süleyman the Magnificent had a name from Arabic — this shows that leaders can have names from different languages. Some think Attila’s name might also come from a Mongolian word for a type of horse. Recently, in 2025, some suggested it might come from an Old Arin word meaning “quick”.

Historiography and sources

Learning about Attila the Hun is tricky because the main records were written by his enemies in Greek and Latin. Many people who lived during his time wrote about him, but only small parts of their work still exist today.

One important writer was Priscus, a Byzantine diplomat who visited Attila's court. Though he was influenced by his own political views, his writings give us valuable details about Attila, including a description of what he looked like. Priscus wrote about the later years of the Roman Empire, but only pieces of his work remain. Later historians like Procopius and Jordanes used his writings in their own books, especially Jordanes in The Origin and Deeds of the Goths. These works help us understand Attila and the Hunnic empire.

Other sources include church writings from many years ago, which can be hard to check because they were copied many times. Writers from Hungary centuries later tried to show the Huns in a good light, sometimes leaving out true facts and adding their own stories. The Huns shared their history through spoken tales and poems passed down through generations. These stories reached us through the writings of their neighbors, the Scandinavians and Germans, who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries. Attila appears in famous old stories like the Nibelungenlied.

Archaeological studies have found clues about how the Huns lived, their art, and their battles. However, the tomb of Attila and the place where he ruled have not yet been discovered.

Appearance and character

We do not have personal descriptions of Attila from his time, but one writer named Jordanes told what another writer, Priscus, had said about him. According to this, Attila was known for making people very afraid. He walked in a proud way and moved his eyes around a lot. Though short, he had a wide chest and big head, small eyes, a thin greyish beard, a flat nose, and dark skin. Some thinkers think these traits suggest his family may have come from East Asia, while others think they match some Scythian people.

Early life and background

Main article: Huns

The Huns were a group of people from faraway lands who moved into Europe around the year 370. They were known for their skill on horseback and were fierce warriors. They lived by moving from place to place, depending on their animals for food.

Attila was born into a noble family of the Huns. His father was related to the kings who led the Hunnic empire. Attila grew up during a time of big changes, as his people moved into new areas and affected many others. The Huns were powerful, and their movements caused many groups of people to move into the Roman Empire. The Romans and the Huns had a complicated relationship, sometimes working together and other times clashing. By the time Attila was growing up, the Huns had become a major force in Europe.

Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire

When the leader of the Huns, Rugila, died in 434, his nephews Attila and Bleda took control. They demanded that the Eastern Roman Empire return people who had fled from the Huns. The Romans agreed to give back these people, pay more gold each year, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay for any Romans the Huns had captured.

After a few years, the Huns returned and attacked the Roman Empire again. They crossed the Danube River and destroyed several cities and forts. They moved through the Balkans, capturing important places such as Margus, Viminacium, Singidunum (Belgrade), and Sirmium. The Romans tried to stop them but could not. Finally, the Romans agreed to give even more gold and pay higher prices for captured Romans. After this, Bleda died, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns.

Solitary kingship

In 447, Attila led his army into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army, led by a commander named Arnegisclus, fought against him in the Battle of the Utus. Though the Romans lost, they still caused many losses to Attila's forces. After this battle, Attila's army moved through the Balkans and reached as far as Thermopylae.

The city of Constantinople was saved because of strong walls that had been repaired and new defenses built by leaders like Zeno and Constantinus. Even though Attila's forces captured many cities and caused trouble, the city managed to stay safe.

In the west

In 450, Attila decided to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse. He formed an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. Before this, he had been friendly with the Western Roman Empire and its general Flavius Aëtius.

Attila claimed that the sister of Valentinian, Honoria, asked him for help to escape a forced marriage. He interpreted her message as a marriage proposal and demanded half of the western Empire. When Valentinian found out, he exiled Honoria and denied the proposal. Attila continued to say the proposal was real and that he would claim his rights.

Attila then got involved in a leadership dispute among the Franks, supporting the older son, while Aëtius supported the younger one. Attila gathered many groups, including Gepids, Ostrogoths, and others, and moved west. In 451, he reached Belgica with his army.

He captured Metz and Strasbourg. Some cities were saved by the prayers of their bishops, such as Tongeren and possibly Paris. Aëtius gathered troops from the Franks, Burgundians, and Celts. He convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I to join the Romans. The combined forces reached Orléans before Attila and stopped his advance. The two sides met near Châlons-en-Champagne and fought in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. The battle ended in a strategic victory for the Visigothic–Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed, and Attila’s army retreated.

Invasion of Italy and death

Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. This led to communities establishing themselves in what would later become Venice as people fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army attacked many cities and destroyed Aquileia so completely that it was hard to recognize the original site.

Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, including Pope Leo I, who met Attila and obtained a promise that he would leave Italy and make peace with the Emperor. Italy was suffering from a famine, and advancing on Rome would have been difficult without more supplies. Additionally, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube and defeated the Huns left behind to protect their home territories. Facing these pressures, Attila decided to retreat to his homeland.

Death

Attila died in the early months of 453. He was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage to a young woman named Ildico. During the celebration, he suffered severe bleeding and died. His body was placed in a tent, and his followers mourned him with great ceremonies. They rode around his body on horseback and sang songs of his deeds. His body was buried in a secret location, and those who buried him were killed to keep the location hidden.

Descendants

After Attila's death, his sons tried to rule the empire but caused it to break apart. A battle in Pannonia led to the death of Attila's eldest son Ellac. His other sons attempted to continue ruling but were eventually defeated. Many families, including the Hungarian Árpád dynasty, later claimed to be descendants of Attila.

Later folklore and iconography

The name Attila has many forms in different languages. For example, it is Atli and Atle in Old Norse, Etzel in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied), Ætla in Old English, and has many versions in Hungarian, Turkish, Kazakh, and Mongolian.

Many medieval Hungarian stories claimed that the Hungarians were connected to the Huns. They believed that their royal family, the Árpád dynasty, were descendants of Attila. Some old Hungarian writings even said that the land between the Danube and Tisza rivers once belonged to Attila.

Some stories tell of a special sword linked to Attila, said to have been given to him by the god Mars. There are also legends about Attila meeting Pope Leo, with some saying the Pope promised Attila that one of his successors would receive a holy crown.

Attila appears in many old German stories and poems, where he is sometimes shown as a noble king. He also inspired works by famous people like Ludwig van Beethoven and Giuseppe Verdi. During World War I, some leaders used Attila's name to describe their enemies. Today, "Attila" is used as a first name in some countries, and there are streets named after him in places like Budapest.