Canadian English

Canadian English is the way people in Canada speak English. It is the most common language spoken in Canada and is used in many parts of the country, from Central Canada to British Columbia. There are different types of Canadian English, such as Standard Canadian English, Atlantic Canadian English, and Quebec English.

Canadian English is very similar to the English spoken in the United States, and together they are called North American English. However, Canadian English also has some words and sounds from British English and other special features that make it unique.

People from Canada and the United States often find it hard to tell each other’s accents apart, especially because both have been changing in similar ways since the 1980s, a change known as the Low-Back-Merger Shift.

History

Canadian English became a serious area of study around the time of the Second World War. The first book about it didn’t come out until 1940. One of the biggest supporters of studying Canadian English after the war was Walter S. Avis. His team found that the term “Canadian English” was first used in 1857 by a Scottish minister in Canada.

Many influences helped shape Canadian English. French words came from French settlers in the 1600s, like poutine and toque. British settlers brought words like lorry and flat. Canadian English also created its own words, such as double-double. American English had an impact too, with words like gasoline and truck being commonly used.

Indigenous languages also added words like moose and toboggan. The history of Canadian English shows how many different cultures and languages have come together to create it.

Historical linguistics

Studies about how English developed in Canada are not very common. Before the 2000s, most writers looked at Canada’s social and political history to understand its English. One important book from 1967, the Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, helped by showing real examples of old words.

Since the 2000s, experts have started using old documents to study Canadian English. A big project called DCHP-1 is now free for everyone to read. One famous researcher, Dollinger, used old texts from Ontario between 1776 and 1849 to learn how English changed during that time.

Canadian dainty

In the past, some people in Canada spoke in a special way called “Canadian dainty.” This way of speaking, which used some British pronunciation, was seen as fancy in the 1800s and early 1900s. After World War II, this style became seen as too showy and is now very rare. Some famous Canadians like Governor General Vincent Massey, writer Peter Stursberg, and actors Lorne Greene and Christopher Plummer grew up speaking with this British-influenced accent.

Spelling

Canadian English spelling mixes rules from both British and American English. Words like realise and organisation often follow British styles, but American spellings with a z are also accepted because Canada is close to the United States. Both versions are listed in Canadian dictionaries.

Some words, like anaesthesia and gynecology, are usually spelled the American way. However, French-influenced words like colour and fibre keep British spellings. Canadian spelling also sometimes doubles letters, like in cancelling, which differs from the American canceling. Canada’s history with American car companies explains why we use tire instead of the British tyre. Over time, many Canadian newspapers switched to British spelling, but some still use American spellings.

Standardization, codification and dictionaries

The first set of dictionaries for Canadian English was created by Gage Ltd. and led by Charles J. Lovell and Walter S. Avis starting in 1960. Important books like the Beginner's Dictionary (1962), the Intermediate Dictionary (1964), and the Senior Dictionary (1967) helped shape how Canadian English words are recorded. In 1967, they also published A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP), which focused on words special to Canada, like mukluk and Canuck.

These dictionaries have been updated often. The Senior Dictionary was later called the Gage Canadian Dictionary, with its fifth edition printing in 1997. In 2017, a new online version called Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2) was released.

Oxford University Press also made a Canadian English dictionary in 1998, called The Oxford Canadian Dictionary. A second version, The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, came out in 2004.

Since 2022, a group called the Editors' Association of Canada has been working with other groups, including the UBC Canadian English Lab and Queen's University's Strategy Language Unit, to create a new Canadian English Dictionary.

Phonology and phonetics

Canadian English speakers often have certain shared sound features, such as the cot-caught merger, where words like "cot" and "caught" sound the same. Another common feature is Canadian raising, where sounds in words like "like" and "about" are pronounced with a higher pitch in certain situations.

Younger Canadians might show a change in the sound of certain vowels, similar to trends seen in some U.S. regions. Overall, Canadian English is quite close to American English in its sound system, and many experts group them together as North American English. The main Canadian accent, called Standard Canadian, is often compared to a middle-ground accent without strong regional marks.

Western Canada shows the most variety in accents, with differences heard especially in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Research has found similarities among speakers in cities like Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton, and Vancouver. This forms a dialect area called Inland Canada, centered around the Prairies, and shows a mix of features that differ from other English-speaking areas in the U.S.

Grammar

Canadians have some special ways of speaking and writing English. For example, they might start a sentence with "As well," meaning "in addition." They also use phrases like "I am done my homework" to mean "I have finished my homework."

When writing dates and times, Canadians mix British and American styles. They might write a date as "July 1, 2017" or "1 July 2017." The government suggests using the format YYYY-MM-DD, like 2017-07-01, but many people still use other formats, which can sometimes be confusing. Canadians also often use a special way of telling time called the 24-hour clock, especially in schedules and timers, though many still use the regular 12-hour clock when talking.

Main article: Date and time notation in Canada

Vocabulary

Canadian English shares many words with American English but also has unique terms that are more common in British English. For example, the word holiday (British) can mean the same as vacation (American), but in Canada, vacation often refers specifically to a trip away from home, while holiday can mean general time off work.

Canadian English also includes words that are rarely used elsewhere. For instance, bunnyhug refers to a hooded sweatshirt, mainly used in Saskatchewan. The vocabulary can vary regionally; for example, Atlantic Canada might use the works to describe a pizza with all toppings, while other regions use terms like deluxe or all-dressed.

Regional variation

Canadian English shows regional differences in vocabulary. For example, terms for athletic shoes vary: runners in Western Canada, running shoes in central Canada, and sneakers in Atlantic Canada. Similarly, terms for a notebook differ: notebook in most of Canada, scribbler in some areas, and cahier in Quebec.

Quebec

Quebec primarily speaks French, so English has limited use in public settings. However, in cities like Montreal, English appears in advertisements and stores. The provincial government is officially called the Gouvernement du Québec. Quebec English borrows some words from French, such as garderie for daycare and SAQ for the Société des alcools du Québec. Other influences include loan translations and semantic shifts of existing English words.

Ontario

Ontario has distinct vocabulary influenced by its history and population. Terms like concession roads (roads that cross a township) and dew-worm (an earthworm) are unique to the region. In Northern Ontario, French and English words are sometimes used interchangeably, and phrases not common in Southern Ontario can appear, such as using camp for a summer home.

Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta)

The Prairies have vocabulary influenced by settlement patterns and Indigenous communities. For example, bunnyhug is a term for a hooded sweatshirt commonly used in Saskatchewan. Other regional terms include biffed for falling and pickerel for the fish species Walleye.

Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick & Nova Scotia, PEI, Newfoundland)

Atlantic Canada’s vocabulary reflects its history and European immigrants. Newfoundland English has unique terms like screech rum (a local brand of rum) and mummering (a Christmas tradition). Nova Scotia uses Sobeys bag to refer to a plastic grocery bag, named after the local grocery store chain Sobeys. Prince Edward Island has terms like angishore for a lazy fisherman.

Education

In Canada, the term college usually refers to a technical or vocational school, not a university. A college student is someone studying at a community college, while a university student is pursuing a bachelor’s degree. Schools are led by a principal, and the assistant is called a vice-principal. Canadian students write or take exams, and those who supervise them may be called invigilators or proctors.

School years are called grade one, grade two, and so on. The year before grade one is usually Kindergarten, except in Nova Scotia where it is called grade primary. High school grades are referred to by number, such as grade nine, instead of terms like freshman or sophomore used in the United States.

Units of measurement

Canada primarily uses the metric system, but some U.S. units are still common. For example, most Canadians measure weight and height in pounds and feet/inches. Distances for golf are in yards, and cooking temperatures are often in Fahrenheit. However, weather is given in Celsius, and motor vehicle speed limits are in kilometres per hour.

Canadians sometimes measure distance in units of time, saying a location is thirty minutes away. Floor areas can be measured in square feet or square metres, and land area in acres or hectares. Fuel efficiency is often discussed in litres per 100 kilometres. The letter paper size of 8.5 inches by 11 inches is used, and beer cans are 355 mL.

Transport

Canadian English uses both railway and railroad, but railway is more common in official names like the Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway. Terms like highway, expressway, and freeway describe high-speed roads, with highway being the most general term. In Quebec, freeways and expressways are called autoroutes.

Other transport terms include level crossing for a railway at-grade junction and overpass or underpass for crossings overhead. In Quebec, metro is used to refer to the subway system in Montreal. The term Texas gate refers to a type of metal grid called a cattle guard in American English.

Politics

In Canada, the term prime minister is used for the federal leader, while provincial leaders are called premiers. The term riding refers to a parliamentary constituency, and Tory denotes a supporter of the Conservative Party of Canada. Members of the Liberal Party are sometimes called Grits, and members of the New Democratic Party are nicknamed dippers or New Democrats.

Law

In Canada, lawyers are called barristers and solicitors, except in Quebec, which has its own civil law system. The equivalent of an American district attorney is called a crown attorney or crown counsel. A serious crime is called an indictable offence, while a less serious crime is a summary conviction offence. The term visible minority refers to non-aboriginal people who are not of the majority race.

Places

Canadian English has many unique place-related terms. For example, a bachelor apartment is a small apartment in one room with a attached bathroom, known as a studio in American English. A bluff refers to a small group of trees isolated by prairie. In Northern Ontario, camp refers to a vacation home by a body of water, known as a cottage elsewhere. A fire hall is a fire station, and height of land refers to a drainage divide.

Daily life

Canadian English includes terms common in other Commonwealth nations but less frequent in the United States. For example, tin can refer to a can, especially among older speakers, and cutlery means silverware or flatware. Serviette is used for a paper table napkin, especially in Eastern Canada, and tap is more common than faucet.

Distinctively Canadian terms include ABM or bank machine for an ATM, BFI bin for a dumpster, and chesterfield for any couch or sofa. Dart refers to a cigarette, mainly used by younger people, and dressing gown or housecoat refers to a bathrobe. Eavestrough means rain gutter, and flush can refer to a toilet, mainly used by older speakers in the Maritimes. Garburator is a garbage disposal unit, and hydro is a common term for electrical service in several provinces.

Informal speech

Canadian English has distinctive informal phrases. The word eh is often used to confirm understanding or invite agreement, as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh?" The term rubber can mean either a condom or an eraser. The word bum can refer to the buttocks or a homeless person, with the former sense being more polite. The word pissed can mean being drunk or angry, with pissed off commonly used for anger.

The term Canuck means Canadian and is not considered derogatory. The term hoser refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male, and Newf or Newfie refers to someone from Newfoundland and Labrador, sometimes considered derogatory. In the Maritimes, terms like Caper for someone from Cape Breton Island, Bluenoser for someone from Nova Scotia, and Islander for someone from Prince Edward Island are used.

Attitudes

In the late 1970s, people had positive feelings about how Canadians spoke English. Special sounds and words made Canadian English unique. But in British Columbia, some people liked British or American English better.

By 2009, most people in Vancouver thought there was a special Canadian way to speak English. They believed it was important to their identity and should be taught in schools. However, many Canadians still use American or British dictionaries because Canadian ones were hard to find.

By 2011, about 65% of Canadians mainly spoke English at home. English is widely spoken across Canada, except in Quebec, where French is the main language. Still, many people in Quebec can also speak English.

A study in 2002 asked people in Ontario and Alberta about different types of Canadian English. They liked their own and British Columbia's English the most, but did not like Quebec's English as much. Even though Toronto and Ontario are very important economically, people thought British Columbia's English sounded the best.

Some people argue that there isn’t really a special “Canadian English.” They say that features often thought of as uniquely Canadian are exaggerated. However, others disagree and say these opinions are just personal views, not based on strong facts.