Guatemala

Guatemala, officially the Republic of Guatemala, is a country in northern Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico, to the northeast (in the adjacency zone) by Belize, to the east by Honduras, and to the southeast by El Salvador. It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the south and the Gulf of Honduras to the northeast.

The territory of modern Guatemala hosted the core of the Maya civilization, which extended across Mesoamerica. In the 16th century, most of this was conquered by the Spanish and claimed as part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence from Spain and Mexico in 1821. From 1823 to 1841, it was part of the Federal Republic of Central America.

Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes many endemic species and contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. With an estimated population of around 17.6 million, Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America, the fourth most populous country in North America and the 11th most populous country in the Americas. Its capital and largest city, Guatemala City, is the second most populous city in Central America, and its metro area is the most populous in Central America.

Etymology

The name "Guatemala" comes from an old word in the Nahuatl language, Cuauhtēmallān, which means "place of many trees". This idea came from the K'iche' Mayan language, also meaning "many trees" or perhaps just the Cuate/Cuatli tree.

Originally, this name was used by the Mexica people to talk about the Kaqchikel city of Iximche, but later it was used for the whole country during Spanish rule. The country's official name is the Republic of Guatemala, a name that started on March 21, 1847. Before that, from April 17, 1839, it was called the State of Guatemala.

History

Main article: History of Guatemala

Pre-Columbian

The first signs of people living in Guatemala go back to 12,000 BC. Old tools and arrowheads found there show people were there as early as 18,000 BC. These early people were hunters and gatherers. By 3500 BC, they had started growing maize, or corn. Places from 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region and at Sipacate and Escuintla on the central Pacific coast.

Archaeologists split the time before Europeans came into three periods: the Preclassic (3000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic (250 to 900 AD), and the Postclassic (900 to 1500 AD). The Preclassic was once thought to be a simple time, but discoveries like big buildings in the Mirador Basin, such as Nakbé, Xulnal, El Tintal, Wakná, and El Mirador, show it was more advanced than once believed.

The Classic period was when the Maya civilization was at its peak. Many sites from this time are in Guatemala, especially in Petén. This time was marked by cities growing, independent states forming, and contact with other cultures in Mesoamerica.

Around 900 AD, the Classic Maya civilization began to fall apart. Many cities in the central lowlands were left empty or their people died, likely due to a drought that caused famine. The exact reason for the collapse is still discussed, but drought is a leading theory.

The Post-Classic period saw regional kingdoms like the Itza, Kowoj, Yalain, and Kejache in Petén, and the Mam, Ki'che', Kackchiquel, Chajoma, Tz'utujil, Poqomchi', Q'eqchi', and Ch'orti' in the highlands. These kept many Maya traditions alive.

The Maya shared many ideas with other Mesoamerican cultures because of lots of interaction and cultural sharing. Things like writing, epigraphy, and the calendar didn’t start with the Maya but they made them very well. Maya influence reached from Honduras, Belize, Guatemala, and northern El Salvador all the way to central Mexico. Many outside influences appear in Maya art and buildings, likely from trade and cultural swaps rather than direct conquest.

Spanish era (1519–1821)

See also: Captaincy General of Guatemala, Spanish conquest of Guatemala, and Spanish conquest of Petén

The Spanish conquest of Guatemala began in the early 1500s, led by Pedro de Alvarado, who was sent by Hernán Cortés to bring Central America under Spanish control. Between 1523 and 1524, Alvarado attacked the Guatemalan highlands, first working with the Kaqchikel Maya against their rivals, the K'iche' Maya. But soon after, the Kaqchikel turned against the Spanish, leading to more fighting and Spanish control of the area.

The Spanish brought diseases like smallpox, which greatly reduced the local population before full conquest. In 1524, the Spanish made their first capital, Villa de Santiago de Guatemala, near the ruins of Iximché, the old Kaqchikel capital. This city was moved to the Almolonga Valley (today Ciudad Vieja) in 1527 because of local resistance.

On September 11, 1541, a big mudflow from Volcán de Agua destroyed Ciudad Vieja, so the capital was moved again to the Panchoy Valley, renamed Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (now Antigua Guatemala). In 1542, the area became the Captaincy General of Guatemala, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This included today’s Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the Mexican state of Chiapas.

Because of its location on the Pacific coast, Guatemala became part of the Manila Galleon trade route, linking Spanish colonies in Asia and the Americas from 1565 to 1815. Goods like silver, porcelain, silk, and spices passed through Guatemala between Manila and Acapulco.

In 1773, earthquakes destroyed Antigua Guatemala, and the capital was moved to its current location in the Ermita Valley. The new city, founded in 1776, is now Guatemala City.

Independence and Central America (1821–1847)

On September 15, 1821, Gabino Gainza Fernandez de Medrano and the Captaincy General of Guatemala declared independence from Spain in Guatemala City. After independence, the Captaincy General joined the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide.

Mexico at this time included areas from northern California to Central America (except Panama, which was part of Gran Colombia). Though this region had been separate from Mexico during colonial times, it became part of the Mexican Empire after independence. Guatemala didn’t get its own flag until 1825.

In 1838, Honduran leader Francisco Morazán and Guatemalan José Francisco Barrundia invaded Guatemala, reaching San Sur. There, they killed Chua Alvarez, father-in-law of Rafael Carrera, a military leader and later Guatemala’s first president. Morazán’s forces destroyed villages and took resources as they moved. Carrera’s forces hid in the mountains. Morazán and Barrundia eventually entered Guatemala City, welcomed by local leaders.

Morazán used money from this campaign to support Los Altos and replaced a local leader with Mariano Rivera Paz from a powerful family. In response, a local leader voted to break away from the Central American Federation, forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador. Along the way, he cracked down on eastern Guatemala as punishment for aiding Carrera. Carrera tried to take Salamá but was defeated and lost his brother. He escaped to Sanarate, recovered, and later attacked and won at Petapa near Guatemala City.

In September that year, Carrera tried to attack the capital but was defeated by general Carlos Salazar Castro in Villa Nueva. After failing to take Quetzaltenango, Carrera was surrounded and wounded and had to surrender to Mexican General Agustín Guzmán. Morazán could have shot Carrera but didn’t, needing peasant support against another leader in El Salvador. Instead, Morazán left Carrera in charge of a small fort without weapons. Ferrera, a leader in El Salvador, gave Carrera weapons and convinced him to attack Guatemala City.

Meanwhile, Salazar tried to negotiate with Carrera but weakened defenses, allowing Carrera to surprise Guatemala City on April 13, 1839. Salazar and others fled. Carrera reinstated Rivera Paz as leader.

Between 1838 and 1840, a group in Quetzaltenango declared the state of Los Altos, seeking independence from Guatemala. Many liberal leaders moved there from El Salvador. Los Altos criticized the conservative government and was a rich area for Guatemala. Fighting followed, and Guatemala tried to solve it peacefully but conflict continued for two years.

On April 17, 1839, Guatemala declared independence from the United Provinces of Central America. In 1840, Belgium began supporting Carrera’s independence movement to gain influence in Central America. A Belgian company took over Santo Tomas de Castilla, though the colony didn’t last. Belgium kept supporting Carrera into the mid-1800s, while Britain remained Guatemala’s main partner. Rafael Carrera was elected governor in 1844.

Republic

On March 21, 1847, Guatemala became an independent republic, with Carrera as its first president.

Carrera government (1847–1851)

During his first term, Carrera moved the country from very conservative to more moderate rule. In 1848, liberals drove him out after months of unrest. Carrera resigned and left for Mexico. The new liberal government, backed by the Aycinena family, quickly passed a law ordering Carrera’s execution if he returned.

Liberals in Quetzaltenango, led by general Agustín Guzmán, took the city after a call from Guatemala City’s president. They declared Los Altos an independent state again. The new government included Florencio Molina and priest Fernando Davila. On September 5, 1848, they chose Fernando Antonio Martínez as leader.

Carrera decided to return to Guatemala, entering at Huehuetenango. There, he spoke with local leaders, who agreed to stay united. In Jalapa, a dangerous area, former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were murdered trying to take control.

When Carrera reached Chiantla in Huehuetenango, he met emissaries from Los Altos who said their soldiers wouldn’t fight his forces to avoid a native revolt. They asked Carrera to keep natives calm. The altenses didn’t listen, and Guzmán’s forces chased Carrera, who hid with native allies. When forces from Guatemala City arrived looking for him, Carrera’s allies protected him.

Guzmán went to Antigua and agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, with help to defeat his enemy and build a Pacific port. Guzmán seemed sure of victory but lost when Carrera and allies took Quetzaltenango. Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as local leader and told him to work with K'iche', Q'anjobal, and Mam leaders to keep order. Yrigoyen commented, “Now he is the king of the Indians, indeed!”

Guzmán moved to Jalapa and made a deal with rebels, while Luis Batres Juarros convinced the president to work with Carrera. Back in Guatemala City within months, Carrera became commander-in-chief, supported by indigenous communities in the western highlands. During his first presidency (1844–1848), he brought the country from very conservative to moderate and, with advice from Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and Pedro de Aycinena, restored relations with the Church in Rome through a Concordat ratified in 1854.

Second Carrera government (1851–1865)

After returning from exile in 1849, El Salvador’s president, Doroteo Vasconcelos, gave shelter to Guatemalan liberals who attacked the government. José Francisco Barrundia started a liberal newspaper. Vasconcelos, impatient with slow progress, planned an open attack. He invited Honduras and Nicaragua to join; only Honduras, led by Juan Lindo, agreed. In 1851, Guatemala defeated the allied army from Honduras and El Salvador at the Battle of La Arada.

In 1854, Carrera declared himself “supreme and perpetual leader of the nation” for life, with power to choose his successor. He held this role until his death on April 14, 1865. While he tried to create economic stability for conservative landowners, his presidency was mostly taken up with military issues at home and a three-year war with Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.

His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios, El Salvador’s president, led to war in 1863. At Coatepeque, Guatemala suffered a heavy defeat, followed by a truce. Honduras joined El Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica sided with Guatemala. The conflict ended in Carrera’s favor. He besieged and took San Salvador, controlled Honduras and Nicaragua, and worked with the Clerical Party while trying to keep friendly ties with European governments. Before he died, Carrera named his friend and loyal soldier, Army Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna, as his successor.

Vicente Cerna y Cerna regime (1865–1871)

Further information: Vicente Cerna y Cerna

Vicente Cerna y Cerna was president of Guatemala from May 24, 1865 to June 29, 1871. A liberal writer described his government as conservative and poorly organized, with bad intentions. He centralized power, calling himself Army Marshall even though that rank didn’t exist in Guatemala’s military. He was president but acted more like a boss over oppressed people who didn’t dare challenge him.

The State and Church were closely linked, and the conservative government strongly supported the Catholic Church’s regular clergy, who were major landowners. Their close ties were confirmed by the Concordat of 1852, law until Cerna was removed in 1871. Even liberal generals like Serapio Cruz realized Carrera’s political and military strength made him nearly unbeatable. So they served under him and waited until Carrera’s death to start a revolt against the weaker Cerna. During Cerna’s time, liberal members were prosecuted and exiled, including those who began the Liberal Revolution of 1871.

In 1871, the merchants’ guild, Consulado de Comercio, lost its special court rights. This affected the economy and land management. From 1839 to 1871, the Consulado had a monopoly in the regime.

Liberal governments (1871–1898)

Further information: Liberal Revolution of 1871

Guatemala’s “Liberal Revolution” began in 1871 under Justo Rufino Barrios, who aimed to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and industry. During this time, coffee became an important crop. Barrios wanted to reunite Central America and took Guatemala to war trying to achieve this, but he died fighting in El Salvador in 1885.

Manuel Barillas was president from March 16, 1886 to March 15, 1892. He was unique among liberal presidents from 1871 to 1944 because he peacefully passed power to his successor. When election time came, he asked the three liberal candidates about their plans. Impressed by Reyna Barrios, he ensured indigenous people from Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán voted for him. Reyna Barrios became president.

José María Reyna Barrios was president from 1892 to 1898. During his first term, landowners gained more power over rural workers. He rebuilt parts of Guatemala City with wide, Parisian-style streets and hosted the first Central American Fair in 1897. In his second term, he printed bonds to fund ambitious projects, causing inflation and growing opposition.

His administration improved roads, installed telegraphs, and brought electricity to Guatemala City. Completing a transoceanic railway was a key goal, meant to attract investors before the Panama Canal was built.

Manuel Estrada Cabrera regime (1898–1920)

Main article: Manuel Estrada Cabrera

After general José María Reyna Barrios was killed on February 8, 1898, the Guatemalan cabinet met to choose a successor but didn’t invite Estrada Cabrera, though he was the designated heir. Two stories explain how he became president: one says he entered the meeting with a gun drawn, the other that he arrived unarmed and demanded the role as the designated successor.

The first civilian head of state in over 50 years, Estrada Cabrera overcame resistance by August 1898 and held elections in September, which he won easily. In 1898, lawmakers met to elect President Estrada Cabrera, who won due to soldiers and policemen voting in civilian clothes and bringing many illiterate family members to the polls.

One of Estrada Cabrera’s notable actions was allowing a large company to enter Guatemala’s economy and politics. As a Liberal Party member, he aimed to develop highways, railroads, and sea ports to grow exports. When he became president, efforts to build a railroad from Puerto Barrios to Guatemala City were nearly complete but lacked funding. Estrada Cabrera decided the only way to finish it was to make a deal with this company, giving them tax breaks, land, and control of all railroads on the Atlantic side.

In 1906, Estrada faced serious uprisings, supported by other Central American governments, but he suppressed them. Elections were held against his will, and he had the elected president killed. In 1907, he survived a bombing near his carriage. It’s thought his rule became more extreme after this attempt on his life.

Guatemala City was heavily damaged in the 1917 earthquake.

Estrada Cabrera held power until forced to resign in 1920 after more uprisings. By then, his support had greatly weakened, and he relied on a few generals. The United States threatened intervention if he was removed by force, but a coalition removed him. He was removed after the national assembly said he was mentally unfit, and Carlos Herrera took over on April 8, 1920.

Guatemala joined El Salvador and Honduras in the Federation of Central America from September 9, 1921 to January 14, 1922.

Carlos Herrera was president from 1920 to 1921. He was followed by José María Orellana (1921–1926) and Lázaro Chacón González (until 1931).

Jorge Ubico regime (1931–1944)

Main article: Jorge Ubico

The Great Depression began in 1929, hurting Guatemala’s economy and causing unemployment and unrest. Fearing revolt, the landed elite supported Jorge Ubico, known for “efficiency and cruelty” as a governor. Ubico won the 1931 election, the only candidate. His policies became quickly authoritarian. He replaced debt peonage with strict vagrancy laws, forcing landless men to work 100 days a year. His government used unpaid Indigenous labor for roads and railways. Ubico froze wages low and gave landowners full immunity to protect their property, which historians call legalizing murder. He expanded and made the police force efficient and harsh, giving them power to shoot and imprison people suspected of breaking labor laws. This created deep anger among agricultural workers. The government became militarized, with every provincial governor as a general.

Ubico continued his predecessor’s policy of giving the United Fruit Company large land concessions. He gave them 200,000 hectares in exchange for building a port, a promise he later dropped. Since entering Guatemala, the company had taken farmland for banana plantations, a process that sped up under Ubico, with the government doing nothing to stop it. The company gained tax and property tax exemptions and controlled more land than any individual or group. They also controlled the only railroad, electricity production, and the port at Puerto Barrios.

Ubico saw the United States as an ally against a supposed communist threat from Mexico and sought its support. When the US declared war on Germany in 1941, Ubico arrested people of German descent on American orders. He also let the US use a base in Guatemala to protect the Panama Canal. However, Ubico admired European fascists like Francisco Franco and Benito Mussolini and compared himself to Napoleon and Adolf Hitler. He dressed lavishly, surrounded himself with statues and paintings of Napoleon, and often commented on their similar looks. He militarized many institutions, including the post office, schools, and orchestras, putting military officers in charge.

Guatemalan Revolution (1944–1954)

On July 1, 1944, protests and a general strike over harsh labor conditions forced Ubico to resign. His replacement, General Juan Federico Ponce Vaides, was overthrown on October 20, 1944 by a coup led by Major Francisco Javier Arana and Captain Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán. About 100 people died in the coup. The country was then run by a military junta of Arana, Árbenz, and Jorge Toriello Garrido.

The junta organized Guatemala’s first free election, won by Juan José Arévalo, a teacher and writer who wanted to make the country a liberal capitalist society. His “Christian Socialist” policies were inspired by the US New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression. Arévalo built health centers, increased education funding, and created a more liberal labor law, but banned unions with less than 500 workers and cracked down on communists. Though popular, Arévalo had enemies in the church and military and faced at least 25 coup attempts during his presidency.

Arévalo couldn’t run in the 1950 elections. The largely free and fair elections were won by Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán, Arévalo’s defense minister. Árbenz continued Arévalo’s moderate capitalist approach. His most important policy was Decree 900, an agrarian reform law passed in 1952. It transferred uncultivated land to landless peasants. Only 1,710 of nearly 350,000 private farms were affected, benefiting about 500,000 people, or one-sixth of the population.

Coup and civil war (1954–1996)

See also: United States involvement in regime change

Despite their popularity, the reforms of the Guatemalan Revolution were opposed by the US government, influenced by the Cold War and the United Fruit Company, whose business was hurt by the end of harsh labor practices. The US was also affected by a propaganda campaign from the company.

US President Harry Truman approved Operation PBFortune in 1952 to remove Árbenz, supported by Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza García, but it was stopped when details became public. Dwight D. Eisenhower became US president in 1952, promising a tougher stance against communism; his staff, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, had close ties to the United Fruit Company and were set against Árbenz. Eisenhower authorized the CIA to carry out Operation PBSuccess in August 1953. The CIA armed, funded, and trained a force of 480 men led by Carlos Castillo Armas. They invaded Guatemala on June 18, 1954, supported by heavy psychological warfare, including bombings of Guatemala City and an anti-Árbenz radio station. The invasion force didn’t do well militarily, but psychological warfare and the threat of a US invasion made the Guatemalan army refuse to fight. Árbenz resigned on June 27.

After talks in San Salvador, Carlos Castillo Armas became president on July 7, 1954. Elections were held in October, but all parties were banned. Castillo Armas was the only candidate and won with 99% of the vote. He reversed Decree 900 and ruled until July 26, 1957, when he was killed by Romeo Vásquez, a member of his guard. After a rigged election, General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes took power. He is known for challenging the Mexican president to a duel over illegal fishing by Mexican boats off Guatemala’s Pacific coast, two of which were sunk by the Guatemalan Air Force. Ydigoras allowed 5,000 anti-Castro Cubans to train in Guatemala and provided airstrips for the later failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961.

On November 13, 1960, left-wing junior military officers from the national military academy led a failed revolt against Ydigoras’ government. The rebels fled to mountains in eastern Guatemala and neighboring Honduras, forming MR-13 (Movimiento Revolucionario 13 Noviembre). On February 6, 1962, in Bananera, they attacked United Fruit Company offices. This led to strikes and student walkouts across the country, and the government responded violently.

In 1963, Ydígoras, against the Kennedy administration’s wishes, said he would let Arévalo return from exile to run in the planned November presidential elections. Arévalo returned on March 27, 1963 to announce his candidacy, but Ydigoras’ government was overthrown on March 31, 1963 when the Guatemalan Air Force attacked military bases. The coup was led by his Defense Minister, Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia. The new regime increased its counterinsurgency campaign against guerrillas that started under Ydígoras-Fuentes.

In 1966, Julio César Méndez Montenegro was elected president under the “Democratic Opening” banner. Méndez Montenegro was the candidate of the Revolutionary Party, a center-left party from the post-Ubico era. During this time, right-wing paramilitary groups like the “White Hand” (Mano Blanca) and the Anticommunist Secret Army formed. These were early versions of the infamous “Death Squads.” Military advisers from the US Army Special Forces (Green Berets) were sent to Guatemala to train the armed forces and help turn them into a modern counter-insurgency force, eventually making it the most advanced in Central America.

In 1970, Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio was elected president. By 1972, guerrilla members entered the country from Mexico and settled in the Western Highlands. In the disputed 1974 election, General Kjell Laugerud García defeated General Efraín Ríos Montt, a Christian Democratic Party candidate who claimed he was cheated out of victory by fraud.

On February 4, 1976, a major earthquake destroyed several cities and caused over 25,000 deaths, mainly among the poor in substandard housing. The government’s slow response to the earthquake’s aftermath and relief efforts caused widespread dissatisfaction, contributing to growing unrest. General Romeo Lucas García took power in 1978 in a fraudulent election.

The 1970s saw the rise of two new guerrilla groups, the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP) and the Organization of the People in Arms (ORPA). They carried out guerrilla attacks, mainly against the military and some civilian supporters of the army. The army and paramilitary forces responded with a brutal counter-insurgency campaign that led to tens of thousands of civilian deaths. In 1979, US President Jimmy Carter, who had previously supported the government, banned all military aid to the Guatemalan Army because of its widespread and systematic human rights abuses. However, documents later showed that American aid continued through secret channels during Carter’s years.

On January 31, 1980, a group of Indigenous K'iche' took over the Spanish Embassy to protest army massacres in the countryside. The Guatemalan government’s armed forces attacked, killing almost everyone inside in a fire that destroyed the building. The Guatemalan government said the activists set the fire and killed themselves. But the Spanish ambassador survived and said the Guatemalan police intentionally killed almost everyone inside and set the fire to hide their actions. Spain then broke diplomatic ties with Guatemala.

The government was overthrown in 1982, and General Efraín Ríos Montt became president of the military junta. He continued the bloody campaign of torture, forced disappearances, and “scorched earth” warfare. The country became an international pariah, though it received support from the Reagan Administration, with Reagan calling Ríos Montt “a man of great personal integrity.” Ríos Montt was overthrown by General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who called for a constituent assembly to write a new constitution, leading to free elections in 1986, won by Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, the Christian Democracy Party candidate.

In 1982, the four guerrilla groups—EGP, ORPA, FAR, and PGT—merged to form the URNG, influenced by the Salvadoran FMLN, the Nicaraguan FSLN, and Cuba’s government, to become stronger. The Army’s “scorched earth” tactics caused over 45,000 Guatemalans to flee to Mexico, where the government placed them in camps in Chiapas and Tabasco.

In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberta Menchú for her efforts to bring international attention to the government’s genocide against the Indigenous population.

1996–2000

The Guatemalan Civil War ended in 1996 with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government, brokered by the United Nations with help from countries like Norway and Spain. Both sides made major concessions. Guerrilla fighters disarmed and received land to work. The UN-sponsored truth commission (the Commission for Historical Clarification) found that government forces and state-sponsored, CIA-trained paramilitaries were responsible for over 93% of human rights violations during the war.

In the years since, millions of documents related to crimes during the civil war have been found abandoned by the former police. Families of over 45,000 disappeared activists are reviewing these digitized documents, which could lead to more legal actions.

During the first ten years of the civil war, victims of state-sponsored terror were mainly students, workers, professionals, and opposition figures. In later years, thousands of rural Maya farmers and non-combatants were targeted. Over 450 Maya villages were destroyed, and more than 1 million people became refugees or were displaced within Guatemala.

In 1995, the Catholic Archdiocese of Guatemala began the Recovery of Historical Memory (REMHI) project to gather facts and history of the civil war and confront the truth. On April 24, 1998, REMHI presented its report “Guatemala: Nunca Más!” summarizing testimony from thousands of witnesses and victims. The report blamed 80% of atrocities on the Guatemalan Army and its collaborators.

Catholic Bishop Juan José Gerardi Conedera worked on the REMHI project. Two days after announcing the release of its report on victims of the Civil War, “Guatemala: Nunca Más!”, in April 1998, Bishop Gerardi was attacked in his garage and beaten to death. In 2001, three Army officers were convicted of his death and sentenced to 30 years in prison. A priest was convicted as an accomplice and sentenced to 20 years.

The REMHI report stated that about 200,000 people died. Over 1 million were forced to flee their homes, and hundreds of villages were destroyed. The Historical Clarification Commission attributed over 93% of documented human rights violations to the military government, estimating Maya Indians made up 83% of victims. In 1999, it concluded that state actions constituted genocide.

In some areas like Baja Verapaz, the Truth Commission found the Guatemalan state intentionally committed genocide against specific ethnic groups during the Civil War. In 1999, US President Bill Clinton said the US was wrong to support the Guatemalan military forces involved in these brutal killings.

Since 2000

Since the peace accords, Guatemala has seen economic growth and democratic elections, most recently in 2023. In the 2023 elections, Bernardo Arévalo won the presidency. He took office in January 2024.

In January 2012, Efrain Rios Montt, the former dictator, faced genocide charges in a Guatemalan court. Evidence presented included over 100 incidents with at least 1,771 deaths, 1,445 rapes, and the displacement of nearly 30,000 Guatemalans during his 17-month rule from 1982 to 1983. Prosecutors sought his imprisonment as a flight risk, but he remained free on bail under house arrest. On May 10, 2013, Rios Montt was found guilty and sentenced to 80 years in prison, marking the first time a national court convicted a former head of state of genocide. The conviction was later overturned, and his trial resumed in January 2015. In August 2015, a court ruled that Rios Montt could stand trial for genocide and crimes against humanity but couldn’t be sentenced due to his age and health.

Former President Alfonso Portillo was arrested in January 2010 while trying to flee Guatemala. He was acquitted in May 2010 by judges who dismissed evidence and discredited witnesses. The Attorney-General called the verdict “a terrible message of injustice” and “a wake-up call about power structures.” The International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), a UN judicial group aiding Guatemala, called the decision “whimsical” and said it contradicted the constitution and laws. A New York grand jury had indicted Portillo in 2009 for embezzlement; after his acquittal, Guatemala’s Supreme Court authorized his extradition to the US. The Guatemalan judiciary is deeply corrupt, with the selection committee for new appointments controlled by criminal elements.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Guatemala won its first Olympic medal when Erick Barrondo won the men’s 20 kilometer walk.

Pérez Molina government and “La Línea”

Main article: Otto Pérez Molina

Retired general Otto Pérez Molina was elected president in 2011 with Roxana Baldetti, the first woman elected vice-president, beginning their term on January 14, 2012. On April 16, 2015, a UN anti-corruption agency report implicated high-profile politicians, including Baldetti’s private secretary Juan Carlos Monzón and the director of the Guatemalan Internal Revenue Service (SAT). The revelations caused public outrage. The International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG) worked with the Attorney-General to expose the scam known as “La Línea” after a year-long investigation including wiretaps.

Officials accepted bribes from importers for reduced import tariffs, a practice rooted in long-standing customs corruption, used by military governments to fund counterinsurgency operations during the 36-year civil war.

A Facebook event with the hashtag #RenunciaYa (Resign Now) invited citizens to downtown Guatemala City to demand Baldetti’s resignation. Over 10,000 people RSVPed to attend. Organizers said no political party or group was behind it and told protesters to follow the law, bring water and food, but not cover their faces or wear party colors. Tens of thousands protested in Guatemala City, including in front of the presidential palace. Baldetti resigned days later. The US revoked her visa, and she was forced to stay in Guatemala, where she was arrested as evidence suggested her involvement in “La Línea.” The prominence of US Ambassador Todd Robinson led to suspicion that the US government was behind the investigation, possibly to ensure an honest government to counter China and Russia’s influence in the region.

The UN anti-corruption committee reported more cases, leading to over 20 government officials stepping down, some arrested. Two involved former presidential private secretaries: Juan de Dios Rodríguez in the Guatemalan Social Service and Gustave Martínez, involved in a bribery scandal at a coal power plant company. Martínez was also Pérez Molina’s son-in-law.

Opposition leaders were also implicated in CICIG investigations: several legislators and members of the Libertad Democrática Renovada party (LIDER) were accused of bribery, significantly reducing the electoral prospects of its presidential candidate Manuel Baldizón, who had been nearly certain to become the next president in the September 6, 2015 elections. Baldizón’s popularity dropped, and he accused CICIG leader Iván Velásquez of obstructing Guatemalan internal affairs at the Organization of American States.

CICIG reported cases so often on Thursdays that Guatemalans called them “CICIG Thursdays.” But a Friday press conference marked the crisis’s peak: on August 21, 2015, CICIG and the Attorney General presented enough evidence to convince the public that President Pérez Molina and former Vice President Baldetti were the actual leaders of “La Línea.” Baldetti was arrested that day, and impeachment was requested for the president. Several cabinet members resigned, and calls for the president’s resignation grew after he defiantly said in a televised message on August 23, 2015 that he would not resign.

Thousands protested again, this time demanding the increasingly isolated president’s resignation. Guatemala’s Congress named a commission of five legislators to consider removing the president’s immunity. The Supreme Court approved. A major day of action began early on August 27, with marches and roadblocks across the country. Urban groups joined rural and indigenous organizations in the strike in Guatemala City, which included students from public and private universities. Hundreds of schools and businesses closed in support. The powerful business leaders’ group CACIF issued a statement demanding Pérez Molina step down and urged Congress to withdraw his immunity.

The Attorney-General’s office called for the president’s resignation “to prevent ungovernability that could destabilize the nation.” As pressure mounted, the president’s former defense and interior ministers, named in the corruption investigation and resigned, abruptly left the country. Pérez Molina lost support daily. The private sector called for his resignation, but he gained support from entrepreneurs not affiliated with sector chambers, like Mario López Estrada – grandson of former dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera and owner of cellular phone companies – whose executives took vacated cabinet positions.

Guatemala’s radio station Emisoras Unidas reported exchanging texts with Pérez Molina. Asked if he planned to resign, he replied, “I will face whatever is necessary to face, and what the law requires.” Some protesters wanted the general election postponed due to the crisis and irregularities, while others warned suspending the vote could cause an institutional vacuum. However, on September 2, 2015, Pérez Molina resigned a day after Congress impeached him. On September 3, 2015, he was summoned to the Justice Department for his first legal hearing in the La Línea corruption case.

In June 2016, a UN-backed prosecutor described Pérez Molina’s administration as a crime syndicate and outlined another corruption case called Cooperacha (Kick-in). The head of the Social Security Institute and at least five other ministers pooled funds to buy Molina luxurious gifts like motorboats, spending over $4.7 million in three years.

Jimmy Morales and Alejandro Giammattei in power (2016–2024)

In the October 2015 presidential election, former TV comedian Jimmy Morales was elected after massive anti-corruption protests. He took office in January 2016.

In December 2017, President Morales announced Guatemala would move its embassy in Israel to Jerusalem, becoming the first nation to follow the United States.

In January 2020, Alejandro Giammattei replaced Jimmy Morales as president after winning the August 2019 election with a “tough-on-crime” agenda.

In November 2020, large protests and demonstrations occurred against President Alejandro Giammattei and the legislature over cuts to education and health spending.

In August 2023, Bernardo Arévalo, candidate of the center-left Semilla (Seed) Movement, won a landslide victory in Guatemala’s presidential election. The outgoing Giammattei administration tried to control the outcome by targeting journalists, anti-corruption investigators, and social movements. After Arévalo’s win, the government attempted to block him from taking power, but indigenous-led protests and international pressure forced acceptance of the results.

Bernardo Arévalo and Movimiento Semilla (2024–present)

Bernardo Arévalo, son of former president Juan José Arévalo, was scheduled to become Guatemala’s 52nd president with Semilla on January 14, 2024, but his inauguration was delayed when the event’s commission failed to approve a congressional delegation.

Minutes after midnight, he was finally sworn in as president on January 15. His campaign focused on anti-corruption and economic opportunities. In his first days, Arévalo reversed an agreement giving security and vehicles to former Giammattei cabinet officials for six years.

On February 8, 2024, Arévalo and Minister of the Interior Francisco Jiménez announced the Special Group Against Extortion (GECE), a special force within the National Civil Police (PNC) to combat violent crime and extortion. GECE will have 400 motorized officers patrolling regions in phases. At Arévalo’s request, the US government donated equipment to support the task force.

On April 23, 2024, during an event marking his government’s first 100 days, Arévalo fulfilled a campaign promise by reducing the presidential salary by 25%, making Guatemala’s president no longer the highest-paid in Latin America. Vice President Herrera also announced a 25% salary reduction.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Guatemala

Guatemala is a mountainous country with some deserts, sand dunes, and hilly valleys. The south coast and the large northern area called Petén are flatter. Two mountain ranges divide Guatemala into three main areas: the highlands with mountains, the Pacific coast to the south, and the Petén region to the north.

Big cities are mostly in the highlands and along the Pacific coast, while Petén has fewer people. These areas have very different climates and landscapes, from hot and wet lowlands to cooler and drier mountain peaks. Volcán Tajumulco, the highest point in Central America, stands at 4,220 metres (13,850 feet).

Guatemala has many rivers. Some are short and shallow along the Pacific coast, while others are larger and deeper near the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Important rivers include the Polochic, Dulce, Motagua, Sarstún, and Usumacinta.

Guatemala lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, which makes it vulnerable to hurricanes. In the past, strong storms caused flooding and mudslides that affected many people. The country also has active fault lines and volcanoes, which have caused earthquakes and eruptions throughout history.

Main article: Biodiversity of Guatemala

Guatemala has many different kinds of plants and animals. It has many forests, wetlands, and rivers. Tikal National Park is a famous protected area and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Maya Biosphere Reserve in Petén is one of the largest forests in Central America.

Government and politics

Political system

Main article: Politics of Guatemala

Guatemala is a country where the people choose their leaders. The President is the main leader, handling both the government's daily work and making big decisions. There is also a Congress that helps make laws, and courts that make sure everyone follows the rules.

Guatemala has had many leaders over the years. Recently, César Bernardo Arévalo de León became the President. He is a diplomat, writer, and member of the Semilla party.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Departments of Guatemala and Municipalities of Guatemala

Guatemala is split into 22 parts called departments. Each department has a leader chosen by the national government. These leaders work with local town leaders to help their areas grow.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Guatemala

Guatemala and its neighbor Belize have had some disagreements about land for many years. They are still talking and trying to solve these issues with help from a group of American countries.

Military

Main article: Military of Guatemala

Guatemala has a small military with about 15,000 to 20,000 people.

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Guatemala, Violence against women in Guatemala, and Guatemalan Civil War

Sadly, some bad things have happened in Guatemala, especially after a big conflict ended in 1996. Some groups tied to the military have been involved in serious crimes. In 2008, Guatemala became one of the first countries to say that hurting women just because they are women is a crime. The country has had many challenges in keeping everyone safe and treated fairly.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Guatemala

Guatemala has the biggest economy in Central America. In 2024, its total wealth was about US$10,998 for each person. Even so, many people in Guatemala live in poverty, and the money is not shared equally.

Guatemala makes money by growing and selling things like fruits, vegetables, flowers, coffee, and sugar cane. People living in the United States also send money each year to their families in Guatemala, which helps the country a lot.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Guatemala

Tourism is very important for Guatemala. Each year, about two million visitors come to see places like ancient Maya ruins, beautiful lakes, and old cities. These visitors help bring money to the country.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Guatemala

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Guatemala and List of cities in Guatemala

Guatemala has a population of about 17.6 million people. Its population grew very quickly during the 1900s, making it one of the fastest-growing countries in the Western Hemisphere. Guatemala held its first official count of people, called a census, in 1778. Some old records from earlier counts were used for scrap paper, so we do not have them anymore. The counts were not done regularly over the years.

Largest cities

Ethnic groups

Main article: Demographics of Guatemala § Ethnic groups

Racial groups in Guatemala (2018 census)

1. Ladinos (56.0%)
2. Indigenous (43.4%)
3. Blacks (0.32%)
4. Others (0.24%)

Guatemala is home to many different groups of people. About 56% of the population is Ladino, meaning they have a mix of indigenous and European roots. About 43.6% of people are indigenous, which is a larger share than in most countries. Most indigenous people belong to the Maya people, including groups like the K'iche', Q'eqchi, Kaqchikel, Mam, and others. Smaller groups include people of African and Caribbean descent, called Garífuna, and people of European, Asian, or Arab background.

White Guatemalans of European descent, also called Criollo, are not separated from Ladinos in counts. Most have ancestors from Germany and Spain, with others from Italy, Britain, France, and other countries. German settlers brought the tradition of Christmas trees to Guatemala.

The population also includes about 110,000 people from El Salvador. The Garífuna live mainly in Livingston and Puerto Barrios. There are also Afro-Guatemalans and people of mixed African and European ancestry, called mulattos. Smaller groups include people of Asian descent, mostly Chinese, and Christian people from Arab countries like Lebanese, Palestinian, and Syrian origin.

Languages

The only official language in Guatemala is Spanish, spoken by most of the population. However, 21 different Mayan languages are also spoken, especially in rural areas. Two other languages are Xinca, which is native to Guatemala, and Garifuna, spoken on the Caribbean coast. These languages are recognized as national languages under Guatemalan law.

Indigenous integration and bilingual education

Main article: Intercultural bilingual education in Guatemala

Throughout the 1900s, there were many efforts to include Mayan languages in schools and society. These efforts began for political reasons but helped bring back some Mayan languages and improve education for Mayan children. In 1945, the government started teaching Mayan children to read in their own languages before teaching them Spanish. This helped children learn better. Later, more programs were created to help Mayan children learn both languages. Today, bilingual education is an official part of the school system.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Guatemala

Christianity plays a big role in Guatemalan life. The country was once mostly Catholic Church, brought by Spanish settlers long ago. Today, many people are Protestant, and this group has grown quickly since the end of the civil war in the 1980s. Other groups include Mormons, Jews, Muslims, and Buddhists.

The Eastern Orthodox Church has also grown a lot in recent years. Some traditional Maya religion practices continue today, often mixed with Catholic traditions. The government supports these traditions by allowing ceremonies at Maya ruins.

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Guatemala

In the past, most people who moved to Guatemala came from Spain. Later, many people from Europe, especially Germany, came and started farms growing coffee and other crops. Smaller numbers came from other European countries. In more recent times, people from neighboring countries like El Salvador and Mexico make up the largest groups of immigrants.

Education

Main article: Education in Guatemala

Education in Guatemala is mostly public and paid for by the government. The Ministry of Education plans and oversees schools. Children learn in Spanish, but in areas with many indigenous people, they can also learn in their own languages. Guatemala has 15 universities, with the oldest one, Universidad de San Carlos, founded in 1676.

Guatemala spends about 3.2% of its money on education. However, it can be hard for children in rural areas and indigenous communities to get good education. Groups like Child Aid, Pueblo a Pueblo, and Common Hope help train teachers to improve learning for children.

Health

Main article: Health in Guatemala

Guatemala faces challenges in health care. It has high rates of diseases that affect babies and shorter average lives compared to other countries in Latin America. There are not enough doctors—only about half the number recommended by health experts. Since the end of the civil war in 1997, the government has tried to bring health services to more rural areas.

Health care spending has stayed between 6.4% and 7.3% of the country's money each year. In 2024, Guatemala ranked 81st out of 127 countries measured for hunger, showing a moderate level of hunger.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Guatemala

Guatemala City has many libraries and museums, including the National Archives, the National Library, and the Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, which has many interesting Maya artifacts. There are also private museums such as the Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Textiles and Clothing and the Museo Popol Vuh, which focuses on Maya archaeology. Most of the country's municipalities have at least a small museum.

Art

Guatemala has many artists who follow old traditions. The Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas "Rafael Rodríguez Padilla" is Guatemala's leading art school. Some famous Guatemalan artists include Dagoberto Vásquez, Luis Rolando Ixquiac Xicara, Carlos Mérida, Aníbal López, Roberto González Goyri, and Elmar René Rojas.

Literature

• The Guatemala National Prize in Literature is an award given to writers for their work.
• Miguel Ángel Asturias won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1967.
• Rigoberta Menchú, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, is known for her books I, Rigoberta Menchú and Crossing Borders.

Cinema

The Guatemalan director Jayro Bustamante has made films that show Guatemalan life and politics, such as Ixcanul in 2015, and Temblores and La Llorona in 2019.

Media and news

Further information: Media of Guatemala

Major national newspapers in Guatemala include Prensa Libre, El Periodico and Siglo21. Guatemala also has several major radio stations, such as Emisoras Unidas.

Music

Further information: Music of Guatemala

Guatemalan music has many styles. The marimba, a wooden xylophone, is the national instrument. Guatemala has music from many times, including the Maya period. Today, many groups play Caribbean music, salsa, Garifuna-influenced punta, Latin pop, Mexican regional, and mariachi.

Cuisine

Guatemalan food is based on Mayan traditions and uses maize, chilies and black beans. Popular dishes include Kak'ik, a tomato-based stew with turkey, pepian, and cocido. Small tamales called "chuchitos", fried plantains, and tostadas are also common. Some foods are eaten on special days, like paches (potato tamales) on Thursday, or fiambre on All Saints' Day.

Sports

Football is the most popular sport in Guatemala. Its national team has played in many competitions. Futsal is also very successful in Guatemala. The Guatemalan Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and Guatemala has participated in many Olympic Games.