History of ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt is a fascinating time in history that lasted from early settlements along the Nile River until the Romans took control in 30 BC. During this long period, Egypt was ruled by powerful leaders called pharaohs. The story of ancient Egypt begins around the 32nd century BC when two parts of Egypt, called Upper and Lower Egypt, joined together under one rule. This pharaonic period continued until Egypt came under the control of Macedonian rulers in 332 BC. The history of ancient Egypt is full of amazing discoveries, amazing buildings, and important ideas that still influence our world today.

Chronology

Note

For alternative 'revisions' to the chronology of Egypt, see Egyptian chronology.

Egypt's history is divided into different time periods based on the rulers, called dynasty of each pharaoh. Figuring out the exact dates of these events is still being studied. The dates listed here follow the commonly accepted timeline for ancient Egypt.

• Prehistoric Egypt (before 3100 BC)
• Naqada III ("the protodynastic period", around 3100–3000 BC; sometimes called "Dynasty 0")
• Early Dynastic Period (First–Second Dynasties)
• Old Kingdom (Third–Sixth Dynasties)
• First Intermediate Period (Seventh or Eighth–Eleventh Dynasties)
• Middle Kingdom (Twelfth–Thirteenth Dynasties)
• Second Intermediate Period (Fourteenth–Seventeenth Dynasties)
• New Kingdom (Eighteenth–Twentieth Dynasties)
• Third Intermediate Period (also known as the Libyan Period; Twenty-first–Twenty-fifth Dynasties)
• Late Period (Twenty-sixth–Thirty-first Dynasties)
• Ptolemaic Egypt (305–30 BC)

Neolithic Egypt

Main articles: Population history of Egypt, North Africa, and Northeast Africa

The Nile River has always been important for life in Egypt, even when people were just moving around and living off the land. Early signs of these people can be seen in old objects and drawings near the Nile and in places far away from the river.

Along the Nile, around 12,000 years ago, people started grinding grain with special tools. They also hunted, fished, and gathered food using stone tools. Evidence shows that people were living and taking care of cattle near the border of modern-day Sudan before 8,000 years ago, but later studies did not support the idea that they were the first to begin raising cattle in Africa.

We know from digging that people lived in places called Nubia as far back as the end of the last ice age, and from around 5,000 years ago, but there is little proof of people living in the main Nile area at that time, probably because the old sites have not survived.

The oldest remains of cattle that people raised in Africa are from around 4,400 BC in a place called Faiyum. Climate changes around 8,000 years ago started to dry up the lands in North Africa, turning them into the Sahara Desert by about 2,500 BC. Because of this drying, the early Egyptians began to settle more permanently along the Nile and change their way of life.

Mainstream scholars have situated the ethnicity and the origins of predynastic, southern Egypt as a foundational community primarily in northeast Africa which included the Sudan, tropical Africa and the Sahara whilst recognising the population variability that became characteristic of the pharaonic period. Pharaonic Egypt featured a physical gradation across the regional populations, with Upper Egyptians having shared more biological affinities with Sudanese and southernly African populations, whereas Lower Egyptians had closer genetic links with Levantine and Mediterranean populations.

Main article: Prehistoric Egypt

Further information: Naqada

The Nile valley was not a good place to live until people started clearing and watering the land, which began around 6,000 years ago. By this time, people along the Nile were farming and building big structures.

People in the southwest part of Egypt were taking care of cattle and building large buildings. They used a special mix called mortar around 4,000 years ago. The people in the Nile valley and the Nile Delta were able to take care of themselves. They grew barley and a type of early wheat called emmer, storing it in pits lined with reed mats. They also raised cattle, goats, and pigs, and made clothes from linen and baskets. Prehistoric times continued through this period, which some believe started with the Amratian culture.

Between 5,500 BC and around 3,100 BC, small villages grew up along the Nile, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea.

The Tasian culture appeared next, starting around 4,500 BC in Upper Egypt. It is named after burials found at Deir Tasa, a place on the east side of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim. This culture is known for making a special type of black and red pottery called blacktop-ware.

The Badari culture came after the Tasian culture, named after a place called Badari near Deir Tasa. The Badari culture also made blacktop-ware pottery, but it was better made. The Badari culture is different from the Tasian because it used copper tools, placing it in a time after the Stone Age, while the Tasian culture was still in the Stone Age.

The Amratian culture is named after a place called El-Amrah, about 120 kilometres south of Badari. This culture is also called the Naqada I culture because it is best known from the site of Nagada. During this time, they continued to make blacktop-ware pottery, but also began making a new type called white cross-line ware, which had white lines painted on it. Trade between Upper and Lower Egypt happened during this time. Objects made of stone from the north were found in El-Amrah, and copper, which is not found in Egypt, came from the Sinai Peninsula or perhaps Nubia. Obsidian and a small amount of gold also came from Nubia.

Naqada II

The Gerzeh culture, also called Naqada II, named after the site of el-Gerzeh, was the next step in development. It began in the Nile Delta and moved south through Upper Egypt but did not replace the Amratian culture in Nubia. The Gerzeh culture was a continuation of the Amratian culture, starting in the Nile Delta and moving south. It was during this time that Egypt began to take shape. The Gerzeh culture lived at a time when there was less rain, so farming became the main way to get food. With more food, people settled down more, and villages grew into cities of about 5,000 people. They started using a sun-dried mud called adobe to build their cities. Instead of stone, they used copper to make tools and weapons. Silver, gold, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, and a type of glass-like material called Egyptian faience were used for decoration. They also began decorating eye makeup palettes with carvings.

By around 3,100 BC, just before the First Dynasty of Egypt, the land was split into two parts: Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. The line between them was around where Cairo is today.

During a time called the Protodynastic period, Egypt had a presence in a place called the southern Levant, with a fortified settlement at Tell es-Sakan as an administrative centre.

Dynastic Egypt

Early dynastic period

The history of ancient Egypt starts with the country becoming a single unified state around 3150 BC. Tradition says that a leader named Menes was the first king, bringing together the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. This period saw the development of Egypt's culture, customs, art, architecture, and social ways of life, all closely linked to their religious beliefs. These elements remained quite stable for nearly 3,000 years.

Timekeeping in Egypt, using regnal years, began around this time. The way historians date these events changed during the twentieth century, and there can be some differences in the dates used for different rulers or topics. Scholars often refer to a schedule created by an ancient writer named Manetho, written in the third century BC.

Before unification, Egypt was made up of many independent villages. With the early kings, known as pharaohs, the land became known as the Two Lands. The pharaohs set up a national government and appointed governors to help manage the country.

Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom, lasting from about 2686 to 2181 BCE, is famous for its many pyramids, built as burial places for the pharaohs. This time is often called the Age of the Pyramids. The capital city was Memphis, where the pharaoh Djoser ruled. Djoser started the building of the first pyramid.

During this time, regions that were once independent became districts, or nomes, ruled only by the pharaoh. Local leaders were either made governors or worked as tax collectors. People in this time worshipped the pharaoh as a god, believing he helped the Nile River flood each year, which was important for growing crops.

The Old Kingdom reached its height under the Fourth Dynasty. Pharaohs like Sneferu, Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure built famous pyramids at Giza. To build these huge structures, a central government organized workers, including peasants who helped during the time when the Nile flood covered their fields, as well as skilled workers like stonecutters and artists.

First Intermediate Period

After the Old Kingdom ended, Egypt went through a roughly 200-year period known as the First Intermediate Period. During this time, many local rulers controlled small areas, and there were problems with leadership and possibly attacks from outside groups. Some writings from later times describe this period as a time when things were not as they should be.

By around 2160 BC, new rulers from Heracleopolis Magna took control of Lower Egypt, while rulers in Thebes controlled Upper Egypt. Eventually, around 2055 BC, the Theban forces won and reunited the country under a new ruler, Mentuhotep II, starting the Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom lasted from about 2030 to 1650 BC. It began with the rule of Mentuhotep II and included the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties. This period saw Egypt reorganize and recover. Mentuhotep II brought the country back together and ruled from Thebes.

Later pharaohs, like Amenemhat I and Senusret I, continued to strengthen Egypt. They expanded Egypt's borders into areas like Nubia and the Southern Levant. Senusret III built large forts to protect Egypt's borders. Amenemhat III focused on developing the Faiyum area and mining in the Sinai Peninsula.

Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos

The Second Intermediate Period began after the Middle Kingdom and lasted until the start of the New Kingdom. This time is known for the Hyksos people, who came from the Levant and took control of parts of Egypt. They ruled from cities like Avaris and Memphis.

The Hyksos brought new technologies and ideas to Egypt. Eventually, Egyptian rulers from Thebes, like Seqenenre Tao and Kamose, began to push back against the Hyksos. Ahmose I finally drove them out, starting the New Kingdom and restoring Egypt's power.

New Kingdom

The New Kingdom, starting around 1550 BC, was a time when Egypt grew very powerful and expanded its lands far to the south into Nubia and into areas of the Near East. Egyptian armies fought against the Hittite armies for control of Syria.

Eighteenth Dynasty

This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. Famous pharaohs like Hatshepsut and Thutmose III ruled during this time. Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs, was known for her ambitious building projects and trade expeditions. Thutmose III expanded Egypt's military power greatly.

Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten and focused worship on just one god, the Aten, which caused big changes in Egyptian society. After his rule, later pharaohs like Tutankhamun and Horemheb brought back the old ways of worship.

Nineteenth Dynasty

The Nineteenth Dynasty began with Ramesses I and included powerful rulers like Seti I and Ramesses II. Ramesses II, also called Ramesses the Great, ruled for 67 years and built many temples, including the famous Abu Simbel temples. He also fought in the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittite king Muwatalli II.

Twentieth Dynasty

Ramesses III was a key ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty. He defended Egypt against attacks from the Sea People and Libyan tribes. However, after his rule, Egypt faced problems like droughts, low Nile floods, and conflicts among his successors, which weakened the country.

Third Intermediate Period

After Ramesses XI, Egypt was divided between rulers in the north at Tanis and priests in Thebes in the south. The country was unstable, with changes in leadership and conflicts. Libyan rulers eventually took control, bringing some stability but also new challenges.

Late Period

From 671 BC, Egypt faced attacks from the Assyrians, who took control and placed their own rulers in power. Later, the Babylonians also attacked Egypt. Eventually, the Persians conquered Egypt, bringing new rulers and changes to the country.

Persian domination

The Persians took control of Egypt and ruled it as part of their large empire. Egyptian leaders sometimes revolted against Persian rule, but Persia kept control until Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC.

Ptolemaic dynasty

After Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, one of his generals, Ptolemy, took control and started the Ptolemaic dynasty. The Ptolemaic rulers adopted many Egyptian traditions, including marrying within the family and participating in religious life. The most famous ruler was Cleopatra VII, whose story ended with the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC.