Humayun

Nasir al-Din Muhammad, known as Humayun, was the second Mughal emperor. He ruled parts of what are now eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Northern India, and Pakistan from 1530 to 1540, and again from 1555 until he passed away in 1556. When Humayun became emperor on December 26, 1530, he was only 22 years old and had little experience governing.

Early in his rule, Humayun faced many challenges. He lost control of his empire to another leader named Sher Shah Suri. For fifteen years, he lived in Persia, far from his home. With help from the Safavid rulers, Humayun returned to power in 1555.

During his time away, Humayun brought many new ideas and traditions from Persia back with him. These influences changed the culture of the Mughal court, introducing new styles of Persian art, architecture, language, and literature. Today, we can still see beautiful stone carvings and many Persian books from Humayun's time in the Indian subcontinent.

When Humayun died in 1556, the Mughal Empire covered a huge area—almost one million square kilometers. He left a strong foundation for his son, Akbar, who would go on to make the empire even larger.

Background

Humayun was born as Nasir al-Din Muhammad to Babur’s favourite wife Māham Begum on Tuesday, 6 March 1508. Māham came from a noble family connected to Sultan Husayn Bayqara, a ruler from Herat, and was also related to Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami, a Persian poet and wise teacher.

Babur decided to share his empire’s lands between two of his sons, which was unusual in India but common in Central Asia since the time of Genghis Khan. Unlike most kingdoms that gave all power to the oldest son, Humayun’s family followed Genghis Khan’s example. This meant that any male from the family could claim to rule, which often led to fights among family members after a ruler passed away.

Early reign

When Humayun became the ruler of the Mughal Empire, some of his brothers rebelled against him because he divided the empire among them. One brother, Hindal Mirza, stood by Humayun but was later killed. Humayun started building a tomb for his brother, but he had to leave before it was finished and go to Persia. Later, another leader named Sher Shah Suri destroyed the tomb.

Humayun faced challenges from two powerful neighbors: Sultan Bahadur in Gujarat to the southwest and Sher Shah Suri along the river Ganges in Bihar to the east. His first big battle was against Sher Shah Suri, but he had to stop this fight to deal with a new threat from Ahmed Shah in Gujarat. Humayun was successful in taking over Gujarat, Malwa, Champaner, and the strong fort at Mandu.

During the first five years of his rule, both Bahadur and Sher Shah grew their power, though Bahadur had some trouble with conflicts from the Portuguese in the east.

In 1535, Humayun learned that the Sultan of Gujarat was planning to attack Mughal lands in Bayana with help from the Portuguese. Humayun gathered his army and moved toward Bahadur, capturing the forts of Mandu and Champaner within a month. However, he decided not to continue the attack and instead focused on securing the areas he had just taken. Sultan Bahadur escaped and found safety with the Portuguese. Later, in a uprising, Bahadur Shah took back Gujarat in 1536 and began attacking Malwa.

Strife with Sher Shah Suri

After Humayun moved to Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri saw his chance to take control of Agra from the Mughals. He gathered his army for a quick attack on the Mughal capital. Hearing this, Humayun rushed his troops back to Agra, allowing Bahadur to reclaim the areas Humayun had recently taken. In February 1537, Bahadur was killed during a failed attempt to capture the Portuguese viceroy, which led to a loss in a fire-fight. Bahadur’s death created confusion in Gujarat, helping the Mughals become stronger there.

While Humayun was in Gujarat, Sher Khan attacked Bengal and besieged Gaur, its capital. Humayun tried to help, but he was delayed by taking Chunar, a fort held by Sher Shah’s son. By the time Humayun arrived, Gaur had fallen, and its grain stores were empty. The wealth of Bengal was taken east, giving Sher Shah more resources for war.

Sher Shah moved west, but Humayun did not follow. Instead, Humayun stayed in his palace for a long time and enjoyed luxury. Hindal, Humayun’s 19-year-old brother, agreed to protect the rear but left his position and returned to Agra, claiming to be the acting emperor. When Humayun sent a leader to talk to him, that leader was killed. Hindal also ordered a special announcement in the main mosque.

Humayun’s other brother, Kamran Mirza, came from Punjab to help, but he planned to take over the empire for himself. He made a deal with Hindal to share power if Humayun was removed.

In June 1539, Sher Shah and Humayun fought the Battle of Chausa near Buxar. After a long and tough battle, Sher Shah broke his promise and attacked the unprepared Mughal troops at night. Most of Humayun’s army was killed, but Humayun escaped by swimming across the Ganges using an air-filled skin and returned to Agra with help.

In Agra

When Humayun returned to Agra, he found his brothers there. Despite their actions, Humayun forgave them. Sher Shah’s army was moving closer to Agra, creating a serious threat. Humayun and Kamran disagreed on how to respond. Kamran left after Humayun refused to attack quickly, choosing instead to build a larger army.

Kamran went to Lahore, and Humayun, with his brothers Askari and Hindal, marched to meet Sher Shah near Kannauj. Humayun was defeated badly. He retreated to Agra, then through Delhi to Lahore. Sher Shah’s new Sur Empire, with its capital in Delhi, forced Humayun into exile for 15 years at the court of Shah Tahmasp I.

In Lahore

The four brothers were together in Lahore, but they kept hearing that Sher Shah was coming closer. When he reached Sirhind, Humayun sent a message asking Sher Shah to leave Lahore alone. Sher Shah replied that Humayun should go to Kabul. Kabul was Kamran’s capital, and Kamran refused to give it up. Kamran even suggested joining Sher Shah against Humayun, but Sher Shah did not need his help. Humayun was asked to punish Kamran but refused, remembering his father Babur’s words: “Do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it.”

Meeting with the Sikh Guru – Guru Angad Sahib

Humayun visited Guru Angad after losing the Battle of Kannauj and his throne to Sher Shah Suri. When Humayun arrived at Gurdwara Mal Akhara Sahib in Khadur Sahib, Guru Angad was teaching children. Humayun was angry that he was not greeted right away. The Guru reminded him that when he needed to fight and lost his throne, he had run away. The Guru blessed Humayun and told him he would regain the throne someday.

Withdrawing further

Humayun decided to move farther away. He and his army crossed the Thar Desert, where the Hindu ruler Rao Maldeo Rathore allied with Sher Shah Suri against the Mughals. Humayun and his pregnant wife faced very hard times in the desert, with little food and water. When Hamida Bano’s horse died, no one would lend her a new one, so Humayun gave her his own horse and rode a camel for six kilometres. Later, someone offered him a mount. Humayun called this the lowest point in his life. He asked his brothers to join him in Sindh, but Kamran and Askari went to Kabul instead. Only Hindal stayed loyal.

Humayun went to Sindh, hoping for help from the Emir Hussein Umrani, whom he had appointed. His wife Hamida was from Sindh. On the way, they stopped in Amarkot, where Hamida gave birth to Akbar on 15 October 1542. Humayun left the baby there because the journey was too hard for an infant. Later, Akbar was raised by Askari Mirza.

In Sindh, Humayun and Hussein Umrani gathered horses, weapons, and new allies. They formed a force with Sindhi and Baloch tribesmen and marched toward Kandahar and Kabul. More people joined Humayun as he claimed to be the rightful heir of Babur.

Retreat to Kabul

After Humayun finished an expedition in Sindh, he traveled with 300 camels and 2000 loads of grain to join his brothers in Kandahar. He crossed the Indus River on July 11, 1543, hoping to regain control of the Mughal Empire and replace the Suri dynasty. Several tribes, including the Leghari, Magsi, and Rind, had promised to support him.

While Humayun was moving, his brother Askari Mirza was ordered to gather an army against him. Rather than fight, Humayun chose to find safety elsewhere. His young brother Akbar was left behind near Kandahar because the winter mountains of the Hindu Kush were too dangerous for a 14-month-old. Askari Mirza took Akbar in, and he was raised by the families of Kamran and Askari Mirza. Later, Humayun went to Kandahar to seek help from his brother Kamran Mirza, but received none, so he turned to the Shah of Persia for refuge.

Refuge in Persia

Humayun fled to the Safavid Empire in Persia with just 40 men, his wife Bega Begum, and her companion. They traveled through difficult mountains and valleys, sometimes having to eat horse meat boiled in helmets. After a month, they reached Herat where they were welcomed warmly. The city treated them to fine food, clothes, and comfortable homes. The ruler, Tahmasp I, welcomed Humayun like royalty.

Humayun explored Herat and admired the beautiful Persian art and buildings, many created by his relatives. He met artists who impressed him so much that he invited them to work for him if he regained his kingdom. Months later, Humayun met Tahmasp in Qazvin at a grand feast. Tahmasp helped Humayun by giving him soldiers and supplies to fight back against his brother Kamran, asking only for the city of Kandahar if Humayun won.

Kandahar and onward

In March 1545, Humayun arrived near Kandahar with soldiers from Persia and began surrounding the city. After a few months, the leaders of Kandahar agreed to give up control, but soon after, Humayun took the city back for himself. He then moved toward Kabul, where he met his son Akbar after almost two years apart. With control of both Kandahar and Kabul, Humayun was now a strong leader in southern Afghanistan.

Humayun continued to face challenges from his brother Kamran, who tried to take control of areas like Badakhshan and Ghazni. There were many battles and struggles, but Humayun worked hard to keep his power. With help from trusted advisors, he managed to defend his rule and prepare for returning to rule in India.

Restoration of the Mughal Empire

Humayun worked hard to take back control of the throne in Delhi. He gathered a large army and placed it under the leadership of Bairam Khan, who proved to be a skilled leader. The army moved through the Punjab and faced only one major battle against Sikandar Shah Suri in Sirhind. Using a clever strategy, Bairam Khan tricked the enemy into following them, then surprised them with strong defenses. In the Battle of Sirhind on 22 June 1555, Sikandar Shah Suri's forces were defeated, and the Mughal Empire was restored.

After this victory, most towns and villages welcomed Humayun's army as it traveled toward Delhi. On 23 July 1555, Humayun sat again on his father Babur's throne in Delhi. With his brothers no longer a threat, Humayun felt stronger as a leader and began new campaigns to expand his rule.

Family

Consorts

• Bega Begum, daughter of Yadgar Beg;
• Gulbarg Begum, daughter of Nizam-ud-din Ali Barlas, who was a former wife of Mir Shah Hussain Arghun;
• Maywa Jan or Mewa Jan, daughter of Khazang yasawal;
• Hamida Banu Begum (married in 1541), daughter of Sheikh Ali Akbar Jami;
• Mah Chuchak Begum (married in 1546), sister of Bairam Oghlan and Faridun Khan Kabuli;
• Khanish Aghacha, daughter of Jujuq Mirza Khwarizmi;
• Agha Jan;
• Chand Bibi;
• Shad Bibi;
• Gunwar Bibi;

Issue

Character

Edward S. Holden described Humayun as a kind and caring leader who deeply loved his son Akbar and his friends, even though he had difficult relationships with his brothers. He believed Humayun's good qualities as a person were overshadowed by his struggles as a ruler, especially because he came after his father Babur’s successful rule and before his son Akbar’s wise leadership.

Stanley Lane-Poole noted that Humayun faced many unlucky events during his time as ruler. Despite his forgiving nature, he met an unexpected end when he fell from the steps of his palace. Humayun’s life was marked by many challenges and setbacks.

Death and legacy

Humayun passed away on 27 January 1556 after an accident. While coming down the stairs from his library, he slipped and fell, hurting his head. He died a few days later. His body was first placed in Purana Qila, but later moved to Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, a beautiful garden tomb that became a model for other famous buildings.

His stepmother, Gulbadan Begum, wrote a book about his life called the Humayun nameh. This book gives us special insights into Humayun's story and the time he lived in. Historians today see Humayun in a new light, understanding his challenges better and recognizing his importance in connecting different cultures.

In popular culture

Humayun has been shown in many movies and TV shows. In 1945, a film called Humayun featured him played by Ashok Kumar. Later, in 1988-89, he appeared in an Indian series named Akbar the Great, portrayed by Shahid Khan. In 1997, a Pakistani series called Babar showed him played by Babar Ali. In 2017, Ankur Nayyar acted as Humayun in the Indian TV series Akbar Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar. Most recently, in 2021, Aditya Seal played Humayun in the Indian drama The Empire.