Military history of Mexico

The military history of Mexico tells the story of many battles and changes from long ago until today. It began before Europeans arrived in 1519 and includes many fights, uprisings, and big wars. In the early 1800s, Mexico fought for its independence from Spain. Leaders like Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero helped create a new army called the Army of the Three Guarantees.

In the 1800s, Mexico faced many challenges, including fights with Texas and the United States. Generals like Antonio López de Santa Anna led the army but often faced defeats. Later, during a time called the Liberal Reforms, leaders tried to limit the power of the military. There was also a struggle when France tried to place its own ruler, Maximilian Hapsburg, as Emperor of Mexico. The Mexican army, led by people like Benito Juárez, fought back with help from the United States.

In the early 1900s, a big change happened with the Mexican Revolution. Leader Porfirio Díaz was overthrown, and new leaders took control. The military went through big changes, and by the mid-1900s, Mexico’s leaders made sure the military was under civilian control. This is different from many other countries in Latin America.

During World War II, Mexico was one of the Allies and sent troops to fight. More recent times have seen the Mexican military dealing with issues like keeping order and security along its borders.

Pre-Hispanic era, before 1519

Before Europeans arrived in 1492, many large civilizations lived in Mesoamerica. These groups often fought each other, taking resources or control from their rivals. Over time, small raids grew into bigger wars. The Aztec Empire, which formed in the 1400s, became very powerful and fought many wars.

The Maya people were once thought to live in peace, but we now know they had many wars too. There were fights between groups like Tikal and Calakmul in the Yucatán area. Other groups, like the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, also had their own smaller wars.

In the 1400s, the Aztecs fought many tribes. Some of these wars, called Flower wars, aimed to capture enemies alive rather than kill them. These captured people were used in special ceremonies for the Aztec gods.

The Aztecs sometimes worked as hired fighters in wars between other groups. Three cities — Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan — joined together to form a strong alliance that ruled much of the area around Lake Texcoco.

The Chichimeca, nomadic groups living in northern Mexico, were never defeated by the Aztecs.

Spanish conquest of Mexico

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire from 1519 to 1521 is one of the most well-known events in history. It began when Spanish explorers arrived in the Caribbean in 1492 and started exploring and settling new lands. These explorers were often wealthy men who wanted to adventure and gain riches.

When Hernán Cortés, a Spanish leader, landed on Mexico’s coast, he decided to explore more than just the shoreline. With a small group of men, some horses, and weapons, he moved inland. He formed alliances with local groups who were unhappy under Aztec rule, especially the people of Tlaxcala. These allies helped the Spanish in their fight against the powerful Aztec Empire.

The Spanish also had help from Malinche, a woman who spoke both the Aztec language and a Mayan language. She helped translate and give advice. Unfortunately, the Spanish brought diseases like smallpox, which the Aztec people had never encountered before. This made many Aztecs very sick and weakened them. After a long and tough battle, the Spanish and their allies defeated the Aztecs in 1521, ending their rule.

Colonial-era control without a standing military

Further information: Military of New Spain

The Spanish did not create a regular army in Mexico until the 1700s. After the Spanish conquered much of central Mexico in the 1500s, they rewarded those who helped with land and control over local people. These leaders were expected to keep the peace and help people become Christians. Local leaders were allowed to carry weapons and ride horses, which common people were not allowed to do. Most local groups were brought into the Spanish empire peacefully, with only a few uprisings.

One big uprising happened in 1541 in what is now Jalisco, called the Mixtón war. It was stopped by Spanish soldiers and their allies. In northern Mexico, groups called Chichimeca became strong fighters against the Spanish after getting horses. They made it hard for the Spanish to settle there until silver was found in Zacatecas. Because silver was so valuable, the Spanish had to find ways to protect the mines and the paths used to move silver. This led to a long conflict called the Chichimeca War. The Spanish first tried building forts called presidios to keep guards there all the time. When that did not work well, they tried making peace and helping the local people become Christians. These methods helped the Spanish control northern Mexico.

Establishment of a standing military, 18th c.

Further information: Military of New Spain

In the 1700s, other European countries, especially Britain, threatened Spain's control over its colonies, including Mexico. When Britain captured Havana in 1762, Spain decided to create a regular army to protect its colony.

Spain worried about arming many lower-class people, but they had no choice because there were too few Spanish people to defend the colony alone. They included mixed-race men in the army, though Indians were not required to serve. The new army also offered special privileges to wealthy local Spaniards, helping them gain status and recognition. This included the right to be tried in military courts for any crimes, which was seen as a way to encourage their support and funding for the army.

Mexican War of Independence, 1810–1821

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

The Mexican War of Independence was a long fight from 1810 to 1821 to free Mexico from Spanish rule. Before this, people born in Mexico, called Criollos, felt treated unfairly by leaders from Spain. When Spain faced problems during wars in Europe, some leaders in Mexico saw a chance to fight for their rights.

The war began when a priest named Miguel Hidalgo urged people to rise up against Spanish control. Many joined him, but the fight was difficult. Leaders changed over time, and it wasn't until 1821 that Mexico finally won its independence when a new plan brought together different groups.

First Mexican Empire and its overthrow, 1822–1823

Main article: Plan of Casa Mata

In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, a former Spanish general who joined the fight for Mexican independence, declared himself emperor. He said this was only a temporary step until a European royal could agree to rule Mexico. However, in 1823, a revolt led by Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria overthrew Iturbide and established the United Mexican States. In 1824, Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the new country. He chose the name Guadalupe to honor Our Lady of Guadalupe and Victoria, meaning "Victory."

The Plan of Casa Mata was created to end the monarchy and start a republic. It was signed by Santa Anna and Victoria in February 1823. This plan did not recognize the empire and called for a new Constituent Congress. Within six weeks, the plan spread to places as far as Texas, and most provinces joined the effort to support it.

Early Republic

Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico, 1821–29

Main article: Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico

After Mexico won its independence from Spain, Spain was not happy and tried to take it back in the 1820s. A brave Mexican leader named Antonio López de Santa Anna became a hero by defending Mexico. During one battle, he lost a leg but kept fighting, showing his dedication to Mexico. Eventually, Spain stopped trying to take Mexico back in 1836.

Pastry War, 1838

Main article: Pastry War

In 1838, a French baker in Mexico said that Mexican soldiers had damaged his shop years before. France asked Mexico for money to make up for it, but Mexico could not pay. This led France to send ships to block Mexican ports and attack a fort. Mexico and France were at war for a short time, but France left in 1839.

Texas Revolution, 1835–1836

Main article: Texas Revolution

Texas fought to become independent from Mexico between 1835 and 1836. There were important battles like the Alamo, where Mexican troops defeated the Texans, and the Battle of San Jacinto, where Texas won and created the Republic of Texas.

Mexican–American War, 1846–1848

Main article: Mexican–American War

Mexico lost many lands to the United States during this war from 1846 to 1848. One famous battle was the Battle of Chapultepec in 1847, where young Mexican cadets fought very bravely. The war ended with Mexico giving up lands that are now part of the United States.

U.S. troops entered Mexico from many directions. They won several important battles and took over Mexico City. The war ended with treaties that let the United States take over new lands.

Caste War of Yucatán, 1847–1901

Main article: Caste War of Yucatán

The Maya people fought against others in the Yucatán Peninsula from 1847 to 1901. At one point, they pushed others out of most of the area, except for a few cities. The Maya had a special symbol called the "Talking Cross" that they believed gave them guidance. This war lasted for many years with fighting on both sides.

Era of the Liberal Reform

This time was not peaceful even though regular people controlled the government. There was a big fight inside Mexico called a civil war. Also, foreign soldiers from France tried to take over Mexico and put their own ruler in charge.

The Revolution of Ayutla in 1855 helped remove a leader named Santa Anna. Later, from 1857 to 1860, there was a war called the Reform War. Leaders tried to make new rules for everyone to be treated fairly, but this caused more fighting between different groups.

In 1862, France sent soldiers to Mexico while the United States was busy with its own civil war. Even though Mexican forces won an early battle on May 5 (now celebrated as Cinco de Mayo), the French kept fighting and put a new ruler named Maximilian in charge. After the U.S. civil war ended, the United States helped the Mexican leader Juárez. When French soldiers left, Maximilian was captured and removed from power. Juárez’s government returned, but another leader, Porfirio Díaz, later took control in 1876.

Porfiriato (1876–1911)

Main article: Porfiriato

During the years from 1876 to 1911, a leader named Díaz took control of Mexico. He called this time the "Order and Progress" era. Díaz made sure things were calm, even if it meant stopping uprisings harshly, so that businesses felt safe to help Mexico grow. He believed that peace was important for attracting money from other countries.

Díaz changed the army, making it smaller and less powerful, because he worried it might challenge his leadership. Instead, he grew a special group of rural police who worked directly for him. These police could travel quickly on trains to places where people were unhappy, to help bring back peace. Building railways was one big project that helped Mexico develop during this time.

Mexican Revolution 1910–1920

Main article: Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution was a long struggle between different groups in Mexico. It began as a fight against the leader Porfirio Díaz, who had been in power for many years. The revolution started in 1910 and lasted until 1920.

During this time, many brave people fought for change. Leaders like Venustiano Carranza, Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, and Alvaro Obregón became important. They had different ideas about how Mexico should be run, which led to many battles and conflicts.

Women also played a big role in the revolution. Some fought alongside the soldiers, and they are remembered for their courage. The story of a brave woman named La Adelita became a famous symbol of this time.

While this big revolution was happening, Mexico tried to stay neutral during World War I. There were some tense moments with the United States, but Mexico focused on its own struggles for change.

Era of the Post Revolution, 1920–1946

In 1920, leaders from the state of Sonora rebelled against the president, starting a long period where military leaders held power. Each new leader worked to reduce the influence of the military, bringing armies and their leaders under central control. This time was marked by many failed uprisings, showing that struggles for power continued even after new leaders took charge.

One key event was in 1920 when the president could not run for re-election. Instead of choosing his loyal general, he picked a civilian. This led some generals, including Alvaro Obregón, to rebel. The president had to flee, and Obregón became the new leader. During this time, leaders worked to make the military more organized and less involved in politics. They also made peace with important figures like Pancho Villa by offering them land and money in exchange for stopping their fights.

Later leaders continued these efforts, creating better training for younger officers and reducing the military’s control over the government. Despite challenges, the military became more professional and less political. During World War II, Mexico supported the Allies, though many people were not eager to fight. Mexico’s small air force unit joined the U.S. efforts in the Pacific, and many Mexican workers traveled to the U.S. to help with the war effort.

Post World War II

See also: Mexican Armed Forces

1994 Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas

One recent event in Mexico's military history was the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. This group works to support the rights of the country's indigenous peoples. They wanted to change the government, but after short fights in Chiapas, there have been no big battles since. The government tried to control the rebellion, while the Zapatistas shared their ideas through newspapers and the internet.

President Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000) did not accept most of the rebels' requests.

Hurricane Katrina, 2005

Main article: Mexican response to Hurricane Katrina

In September 2005, Mexican army teams went to the U.S. to help after Hurricane Katrina. They brought food, supplies, and helpers like doctors and engineers. This was the first time Mexican military units worked in the U.S. since 1846. All the team members were not carrying weapons.

Mexican Dirty War

Main article: Mexican Dirty War

The Mexican Dirty War happened from 1964 to 1982. It started because the government wanted to control people who disagreed with them. This included students and groups fighting for change. The government used secret and unfair methods to stop them.

Many people were hurt or disappeared during this time. Later, Mexico admitted that mistakes were made and started looking into what happened. In 2019, the president shared old government records showing how activists were treated unfairly.

Mexican Drug War

Main article: Mexican Drug War

The Mexican military has helped fight against drug trafficking. Laws changed in 1892 to create special forces. By the 2000s, the drug trade grew a lot, and Mexico received money to improve its justice system and fight back.

U.N. Peacekeeping, 2014

Mexico has sent troops to help with United Nations peacekeeping.

Border security

Main article: National Guard (Mexico)

In 2019, the government created the Mexican National Guard to help with border security.

Timeline

Mexico has a long history of military events. In 1519, Hernán Cortés arrived at Veracruz and, with help from local allies, conquered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1521.

Many important changes happened over the next centuries. In 1810, Mexico began fighting for independence from Spain, which was achieved by 1821. Later, Mexico faced conflicts such as the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848, where Mexico lost some lands to the United States.

In the 1900s, Mexico saw revolutions and reforms. The Constitution of 1917 brought new rights and changes. Mexico also joined World War II in 1942, supporting the Allied Powers. In 1994, a rebellion in Chiapas called for better treatment for farmers and indigenous people.