Paris in the 18th century

Paris in the 18th century was the second-largest city in Europe after London, with about 600,000 people living there. Many important buildings were built during this time, including Place Vendôme, Place de la Concorde, the Champs-Élysées, the church of Les Invalides, and the Panthéon. The Louvre Museum was also founded during this period.

The city played a big role in history. It was where the ideas of the Enlightenment grew and where the French Revolution began. Paris was also the place where the first person flew in an airplane. During this time, Paris became known for its fashion and for creating the first modern restaurants and bistros. The end of Louis XIV's reign also happened in Paris, marking the close of an important era.

Paris at the end of the reign of Louis XIV

"The new Rome"

Louis XIV did not trust the people of Paris because he had to leave the city twice when he was young. He moved his home and his court to the Palace of Versailles in 1682. Even though he did not like Parisians, he wanted Paris to show his greatness. He said he wanted to "do for Paris what Augustus had done for Rome." He added new squares and buildings to the city. These included the Collège des Quatre-Nations, the Pont Royal, and two big squares: Place des Victoires and [Place Louis le Grand] (now Place Vendôme). He also started building the Hôtel des Invalides, a place for wounded soldiers.

Louis XIV spent a lot of money on new buildings. In Paris, he used ten percent of that money. This paid for rebuilding the Louvre and the Tuileries, new factories, and Les Invalides. He also built new churches, though many were not finished until later.

He changed the city’s borders by tearing down old walls and gates. In their place, he built wide streets and ceremonial arches like the Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin. These became popular places for people to walk.

Running the city was very complicated. Many important people shared responsibilities, but the King and his council made the big decisions. Even with new lights and more night watchmen, the center of Paris was crowded, dark, and unhealthy.

The last years of Louis XIV’s rule were very hard for Paris. Bad harvests caused hunger in the winter of 1692‑1693. Many people died from lack of food. Another bad harvest and a very cold winter happened in 1708‑1709. The river froze, making it hard to bring food to the city. There were riots, and soldiers had to help keep order.

Louis XIV’s last visit to Paris was on 28 August 1706 to see work on a new chapel for the Hôtel des Invalides. He died on 1 September 1715.

Paris under Louis XV

After the death of King Louis XIV, a young king named Louis XV was crowned. His uncle, Philippe d'Orléans, became the regent and ruled until Louis XV was old enough. During this time, people in Paris enjoyed fun activities again, like plays and masked balls.

Louis XV grew up in Paris and had many interesting things to learn and play with, including scientific instruments and telescopes. When he became older, he helped build many important places in the city, like a new military school and a grand church that later became the Panthéon. He also added beautiful buildings and a large fountain to make Paris more lovely.

The Parisians

There were no official counts of people in Paris before 1801, but historians think the city had about 500,000 people at the start of the 1700s. By 1789, just before a big change in France, the number grew to between 600,000 and 650,000. After a tough time for the economy, the count dropped to about 546,856 by 1801, but it bounced back up to 622,636 by 1811. Paris wasn’t the biggest city in Europe anymore—London had more people—but it was the largest in France and kept growing fast. Many people moved in from places around Paris and from the north and east of France. The city got crowded, with buildings rising higher, up to four, five, or even six stories tall. By 1784, laws limited buildings to about eighteen metres tall.

Paris had clear social groups back then. At the top were the nobles, making up just three or four percent of the people—about twenty thousand in all. They lived in grand houses, especially in areas like the Marais, Faubourg Saint-Honoré, and Faubourg Saint-Germain. Below them were wealthy families, merchants, and professionals like doctors and lawyers. These middle-class people often lived in fancy homes and helped organize community activities. Many worked hard to build big fortunes and lived well.

Most people in Paris were working class or poor. Many were servants living with the families they worked for, often from other parts of France. Others worked at home making things like clothes or toys. Life was hard; wages were low, and many families struggled to afford basic things like bread. The poorest people relied on help from churches and kind acts from others to get by. They lived in crowded parts of the city, like around Les Halles or the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, where many small workshops were.

Economy

Banking and finance

In the 18th century, Paris lagged behind other European cities in banking and finance. The first big step into modern finance began in 1716 when a Scottish economist named John Law started a private bank and began printing paper money. He also invested heavily in the Mississippi Company, which caused many people to speculate wildly as prices soared. However, the bubble burst in 1720, Law closed the bank, and many investors lost their money. After this, Parisians became wary of banks. The Paris stock market, called the Bourse, didn’t open until 1724. The Banque de France, France’s national bank, wasn’t established until 1800.

Throughout the century, the government struggled with growing debts. This financial trouble, along with the dismissal of finance minister Jacques Necker, helped lead to the French Revolution in 1789.

Luxury goods

Royal workshops in Paris made beautiful and expensive items like jewelry, watches, porcelain, and furniture for the French court and other royal families across Europe. King Louis XV supported these workshops, including the Gobelins for tapestries and the Sèvres factory for fine dishes. Paris craftsmen were very busy making luxurious items for noble homes and palaces.

High fashion

Fashion was very important in the mid to late 1700s. Aristocrats copied the Queen’s styles, and wealthy merchants and bankers followed aristocratic trends. In 1776, the fashion industry began when fashion merchants separated from ordinary clothing sellers. By 1779, Paris had two hundred different hat styles for sale.

Rose Bertin, a famous dressmaker, made clothes for Queen Marie Antoinette and opened a shop called the Grand Mogol. Fashion shops at the Palais Royal were popular places to see and copy the latest styles. Fashion magazines like Le Journal des Dames began in 1774 to show new trends. After the Revolution, Rose Bertin continued to make simple items for Marie Antoinette until her execution.

Perfumes also became popular. Shops selling perfumes opened in Paris, mostly made in Grasse. Wig-makers and hair stylists became wealthy by creating fancy hairstyles for aristocrats.

Fashion showed a person’s social class. Aristocrats wore rich, colorful fabrics, while wealthy merchants wore more serious colors. Men wore tight shorts called culottes, and the poor mocked the rich by calling themselves sans-culottes. After the Revolution, clothing became simpler, with women’s styles inspired by ancient Greece and Rome.

From workshops to factories

Most of Paris’s economy in the 18th century relied on small workshops where skilled workers made goods. These workshops were grouped in certain neighborhoods. There were a few large factories, like the Gobelins dye factory and the Sèvres porcelain factory.

In the late 1700s, new technologies changed Paris’s industries. Steam engines were installed to pump water, and new chemical discoveries led to factories making sulfuric acid and other chemicals. These changes began to shift Paris from small workshops to larger factories.

Institutions

The city administration

From the beginning of the 18th century until the Revolution, Paris was governed by many royal officials whose roles had been created over time. Many of these positions were mostly for show and had little real power. The main official, called the provost of the merchants, was chosen by the King and had no real authority.

When the Revolution began, the old city government was replaced. On July 15, 1789, a new leader named Bailly became the first modern mayor of Paris. The city was divided into sections, each with its own leaders and committees. This system was complicated and often caused problems.

The police

In the early 1700s, Paris had two groups of police: the Garde de Paris and the Guet Royal. The Garde was more like a military unit, while the Guet was made up of local Parisians. Both groups had trouble with corruption and were not very effective. During the Revolution, the Garde was reformed and later abolished.

The hospitals

For most of the 1700s, hospitals in Paris were run by the church and focused more on spiritual care than medical treatment. The largest hospital was the Hôtel-Dieu, which was crowded and often overflowed with sick and poor people. Over time, medical care improved, and hospitals began to focus more on scientific treatment.

Prisons and the debut of the guillotine

Paris had many prisons, each used for different types of prisoners. The Bastille and the Château de Vincennes held important political prisoners. During the Revolution, many prisons were filled with accused aristocrats and others. A new method of execution, the guillotine, was introduced as a more humane way to carry out sentences.

The University and Grandes écoles

The University of Paris lost its importance and was closed in 1792. However, new schools for engineering and teaching, known as Grandes écoles, were created during the Revolution. These schools helped start France's industrial revolution in the 1800s.

Religions and the Freemasons

Most Parisians were Roman Catholic, and the church played a big role in the city. However, its influence weakened over time due to conflicts and the ideas of the Enlightenment. The church ran hospitals, schools, and helped the poor. After the Revolution, the church's property was sold, and many churches were closed.

The Freemasons were a group that promoted liberty and tolerance. They supported the Enlightenment and were influential in Paris. Many of their aristocratic members left during the Revolution.

Daily life

Housing

During the 18th century, wealthy families in Paris lived in bigger houses. Many moved to areas like Faubourg Saint-Antoine and Faubourg Saint-Germain, where there was more space. Some large homes, like the Hotel de Soubise and Hotel de Sully, were still in the Marais area. These houses had lots of rooms and space.

Most people in Paris lived in smaller buildings with just a few rooms. These buildings often had shops on the ground floor and apartments above. Not many homes had bathrooms or toilets at this time.

Time, the work day and the daily meals

People in Paris used church bells to know the time, as there were many churches and convents that rang their bells often. Wealthy families started using pocket watches. The day for rich families was busy: markets opened early, people went to work, and there were times for lunch, walks, and evening visits. Work for regular people lasted about twelve hours with a break for food.

Food and drink

People in Paris mainly ate bread, meat, and drank wine. Bread was a big part of meals, especially for poorer families. Meat came from butcher shops, and different families could afford different types. Wine was popular, and there were many places to buy it, though taxes made it expensive in the city.

Drinking water

Rich families had wells in their homes for clean water. Most people had to use water from the Seine River or public fountains, which were not always clean or easy to reach. Some new wells were dug, but they had problems with taste and heat. Getting clean water was difficult for many until later times.

Transportation

In the 18th century, people in Paris mostly walked because there were no buses or trains. Rich people rode in carriages or on horses. There were many carriages for hire, which were like the first taxis.

The Bateaux-Lavoirs

Bateaux-Lavoirs were special boats on the Seine River where people washed clothes. These flat boats had roofs to protect the laundry. Laundresses paid to use these boats, and they were popular spots along the river.

The floating baths

Only wealthy families had baths at home. Most people either didn’t bathe often, used a bucket, or went to public bathhouses. In summer, many people bathed in the river from special floating platforms. These platforms were old barges with roofs, and people could rent bathing clothes or go in without them. Rules were made to keep things modest, but people still enjoyed these baths.

The press, the pamphlet and the post

The first daily newspaper in Paris, the Journal de Paris, started in 1777. It shared local news but had to follow strict rules set by leaders. Later, during big changes in the country, more newspapers and pamphlets appeared, talking about many topics. After that, rules became strict again.

In the early 1700s, Paris had a simple mail service for letters going outside the city. In 1760, a new service began delivering letters inside the city. It grew quickly, with many mailboxes and people helping to deliver mail.

Amusements

People in Paris in the 18th century liked to spend time in gardens and public places to see and be seen. Three main gardens were open to everyone: the Tuileries Gardens, the Luxembourg Garden, and the Jardin des Plantes. These places had no entry fee and often had concerts and other fun activities.

As the city grew, people started enjoying new wide paths called boulevards and the famous Champs-Élysées. These areas became popular spots for walking and watching street performers like acrobats and musicians. Later, fancy private gardens like Tivoli opened where people could pay to enjoy music, dancing, and shows.

Paris also saw the rise of new eating places. Instead of crowded, messy taverns, places called "Bouillons" appeared, offering separate tables and special soups. The first fancy restaurant, Taverne Anglaise, opened at the Palais-Royal and had elegant settings and delicious dishes.

Cafés became popular meeting spots where people discussed news and ideas. The Café Procope was one of the first and attracted famous thinkers. By the end of the century, there were over 1,800 cafés in Paris.

Outside the city, places called Guingettes offered cheaper drinks and music, especially on Sundays. These were favorite spots for workers and families to relax.

Culture

Theater

Theater became very popular in Paris during the 18th century. The number of seats in theaters grew from about 4,000 in 1700 to 13,000 by 1789. In 1760, a street called boulevard du Temple became the main place for theaters in Paris. Many famous theaters opened there, including the Théâtre des Grands Danseurs de Roi, which later became the Théâtre de la Gaîeté. Other theaters like the Ambigu-Comique and the Théâtre des Élèves de l'Opéra also opened on this street.

One of the most successful playwrights was Pierre Beaumarchais. His play Le Barbier de Séville was first performed in 1775, followed by Le Mariage de Figaro in 1784. This play was very popular and had many performances.

The Comédie-Française, one of the most famous theater companies, moved several times during this period. Because of political changes during the Revolution, the company split into two groups. Later, they joined back together and continued performing.

Painting and sculpture

Paris was home to many famous painters and sculptors in the 18th century. Artists like Jean-Baptiste Chardin, François Boucher, Hubert Robert, and Jacques Louis David became well-known. The Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture organized an event called the Salon every two years. This event showed many paintings and sculptures and was held in the Louvre.

During the Revolution, artist Jacques Louis David supported the revolutionary government and created paintings that showed revolutionary ideas. After the Revolution, he painted portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Literature

Many famous French writers lived during the 18th century, including Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Although they often faced censorship, their books were widely read and influenced many people. Paris was a major center for publishing books, and many famous works were read all over Europe.

Literary salons were popular gatherings where people discussed new books and ideas. These salons were hosted by noblewomen in their homes. However, the Revolution ended many of these salons, as many aristocrats were executed or went into exile.

The Enlightenment

In the middle of the 1700s, Paris became a hub for new ideas and discoveries known as the Age of Enlightenment. Famous thinkers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau promoted ideas such as using reason instead of strict religious rules to guide society. They also suggested new ways to organize governments and encouraged studying the world through experiments and careful observation. Another philosopher, Montesquieu, introduced the idea of separating different powers within a government, which later influenced the creation of the United States Constitution.

Many of these activities took place at the Louvre, home to the French Academy of Sciences, where scientists studied many fields such as math, stars, plants, and chemicals. Important scientists like Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon led research in gardens dedicated to plants. Mathematicians, botanists, and chemists all helped advance knowledge during this time. Books sharing these new ideas spread across Europe. Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert created a large book called the Encyclopedie that shared many types of knowledge. Scientists from around the world, including Benjamin Franklin, visited Paris to exchange ideas.

Inventions

The 1700s were a time of many inventions in Paris. Scientists' work in chemistry led to the creation of early chemical factories. Experiments with gases allowed the Montgolfier Brothers to launch the first successful hot-air balloon flight on November 21, 1783, from near the Bois de Boulogne. This invention inspired the creation of the parachute. One pilot, André-Jacques Garnerin, made the first parachute jump in 1797, dropping from a balloon above Parc Monceau. Later, his future wife became the first woman to fly alone in a balloon and also made a parachute jump.

Another useful invention was the folding umbrella, introduced in 1710 by a Paris merchant. This umbrella could open and close like modern ones and was lighter than a kilogram. A princess helped make it popular, and later improvements combined it with a walking stick.

Urbanism

In the early 1700s, Paris was not very beautiful. Narrow, dirty streets and crowded buildings made the city look unhealthy. But later, people worked to make Paris better. They added sidewalks to protect people walking on the streets. They also made rules about how tall buildings could be, so streets would not be too dark.

The city tried to improve traffic by clearing out stones and barriers and by building new bridges. They also added brighter street lights to help people see at night. One of the most famous buildings, La Madeleine, showed a style called neo-classicism, which looked like ancient Greek and Roman buildings.

Revolutionary Paris (1789–1799)

Main article: French Revolution

The eve of the Revolution

King Louis XVI began his rule in 1774, but France was in trouble. Money was tight after wars, and the government needed to save. To help Paris, the king brought back an important court. He also cut down on guards and soldiers in the city to save more money. This meant there were fewer people to keep order.

Life was hard for many people in Paris. The king’s family spent money carelessly, and people were angry. New rules made it hard for ordinary people to buy food, and there were many arguments and protests. The king tried to fix things but kept making mistakes, and people were getting more upset.

The fall of the monarchy

As tension grew, people in Paris took action. They took over important buildings and set up their own leaders. The king tried to leave but was stopped. Finally, the people declared that the old way of ruling was over and that France would now be a republic.

The Convention and the Reign of Terror

The new leaders put the king on trial and made big changes to how France was run. They took away many old traditions and tried to make everything equal. Things were very hard for everyone, especially when it came to getting enough food. Some leaders became very powerful and made many people afraid. Unfortunately, during this time, many people were unfairly treated and lost their lives. The leaders eventually turned on each other, ending this difficult period.

Paris under the Directory (1795–1799)

Following a difficult period, the city of Paris began to reorganize its government. New leaders were appointed to manage the city, and everyday life remained challenging due to cold weather and shortages of basic goods like bread and fuel. People faced long lines and struggled with the value of money dropping significantly.

During this time, social norms changed greatly. Old rules about class and behavior disappeared, and people of different backgrounds mingled more freely in public places like balls and restaurants. Marriages became less formal, and divorce became easier for both men and women. New social clubs and groups emerged, reflecting the changing times.

Art continued to flourish, with artists showcasing their works in public exhibitions. The Louvre began to transform into a public museum, displaying many valuable pieces of art that had been collected from across Europe. Entertainment also grew, with many new dance halls, gardens, and cafes opening, offering Parisians places to gather and enjoy themselves after years of hardship.

Chronology

See also: Timeline of Paris § 18th century

Paris in the 18th century was a busy city with many changes. It grew and new buildings were constructed, like the Les Invalides church and the Panthéon. Important events happened, such as the end of King Louis XIV’s rule and the beginning of the French Revolution. People also enjoyed new activities, like the first hot air balloon flight.

Here are some key moments from the century:

• 1701: Paris was divided into new police districts.
• 1706: The Les Invalides church was consecrated.
• 1709: Very cold weather froze the Seine River, stopping boat traffic.
• 1715: King Louis XIV died, and the young King Louis XV moved to Paris.
• 1716: The first private bank in Paris opened.
• 1718: Construction began on a grand house that later became the Élysée Palace.
• 1720: A bank closed, causing money worries.
• 1721: A famous robber was executed.
• 1722: Building began on a large palace for meetings.
• 1728: Street signs were put up.
• 1731: A school for surgery was created.
• 1738: A factory for special pottery started in Vincennes.
• 1745: Work began on a big book called the Encyclopédie.
• 1749: The first rhinoceros was shown in Paris.
• 1751: A military school opened.
• 1752: The Encyclopédie book was banned.
• 1756: Construction began on a large square now called Place de la Concorde, and work started on a church that became the Panthéon.
• 1760: The first postal service started in Paris.
• 1763: A library opened, and a theater burned down.
• 1764: Stones were laid for two important churches.
• 1765: A place to buy food like soup and meat opened, which was an early restaurant.
• 1767: A scientist named Benjamin Franklin visited Paris.
• 1770: A sad fireworks show happened, and many people were hurt.
• 1775: The first performance of a popular play happened.
• 1776: A shopping street opened, and a group for fashion was formed.
• 1777: A newspaper started, and new streets were built.
• 1779: House numbers were added to buildings.
• 1781: Sidewalks were built on a street.
• 1782: France’s first circus opened.
• 1783: A treaty ending the American Revolution was signed, and the first hot air balloon flight happened.
• 1784: Work began on a wall around Paris.
• 1785: A big cemetery was closed.
• 1786: A shopping area opened, and the first modern restaurant started.
• 1787: A duke sold spaces for shops and cafes.
• 1788: Bad storms hurt crops and caused trouble.
• 1789: People in Paris elected leaders, and there were big protests. The Bastille prison was stormed, and the king was brought to Paris.
• 1790: A celebration marked one year since the revolution started.
• 1791: The king tried to leave but was caught. A big crowd was upset, and soldiers had to stop them.
• 1792: The king was put on trial, and a new government started.
• 1793: The king and queen were executed, and a big museum opened.
• 1794: A leader named Robespierre was arrested and executed, ending a tough time for many people.
• 1795: People protested for food, and battles happened in the city.
• 1797: The first parachute jump happened in Paris.
• 1799: A leader named Napoléon Bonaparte took control of the government.