Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire

Early Christians faced many difficulties in the Roman Empire until the early 4th century. Starting as a small Jewish movement in 1st-century Judaea, Christianity grew quickly and spread across the Roman world. This growth caused problems because Christians did not follow the Roman imperial cult. They openly rejected the idea of deifying the Roman emperor and other Roman paganism practices, which upset many Roman people and leaders.

The Roman government punished Christians for many reasons, including what they saw as treason, illegal meetings, and introducing new beliefs. One of the first big waves of persecution happened under Nero, who blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64. Later, Decius tried to force everyone back to pagan ways, leading to widespread trouble for Christians. Even worse, Diocletian started a severe persecution that lasted until Galerius allowed more tolerance.

Finally, things changed for Christians. After Constantine the Great won a key battle, he and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which made Christianity legal. Later, Theodosius I made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, ending most of the old pagan practices.

Religion in Roman society

Main article: Religion in ancient Rome

In the early days of the Roman Empire, people worshipped many different gods and goddesses, often ones that came from ancient Greece. These gods were very important to daily life and were tied closely to the city's politics and community. Religion was not just about beliefs; it was about following certain rituals and traditions.

Over time, people began to look for new ways to worship, including honoring the emperor and following mystery cults or eastern religions. The Romans were usually open to new ideas, but they were careful about which new religions they accepted. Christians faced problems because they did not follow the old Roman ways and were seen as abandoning their roots. The Romans were also wary of secret meetings, which they thought might hide plots against the emperor. This led to Christians being treated harshly, just like followers of other groups such as the Bacchic cult or Druids.

Reasons, causes, and contributing factors

Early Christians faced persecution in the Roman Empire mainly because their beliefs and practices clashed with Roman traditions. Romans honored their emperors as divine and expected everyone to participate in public religious ceremonies. Christians, however, believed in one God and refused to worship Roman gods or the emperor. This refusal was seen as a threat to Roman society and order.

The Roman government also worried that Christian meetings were secret and could be dangerous. Some Romans spread false rumors, claiming Christians did harmful or immoral things during these gatherings. These misunderstandings and fears led to Christians being punished by Roman authorities. Over time, these conflicts continued until Christianity began to be accepted more widely in the Roman world.

Persecution by reign

Persecution of the early church happened in different places and times from the very beginning. The first organized persecution by the Roman government was under Emperor Nero in AD 64 after the Great Fire of Rome. This took place only in the city of Rome. The Edict of Serdica, issued in 311 by Emperor Galerius, officially ended the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. With the Edict of Milan published in AD 313, persecution of Christians by the Roman state stopped. The total number of Christians who died because of these persecutions is unknown. Early church historian Eusebius talked about "countless numbers" or "myriads" having died. Walter Bauer criticized Eusebius for this, but Robert Grant says readers were used to this kind of exaggeration as it was common in other historians of the time.

By the mid-2nd century, some groups were willing to throw things at Christians, perhaps because of rival beliefs. The Persecution in Lyon (AD 177) began with violence from groups, including attacks, robberies, and throwing things. Lucian told about a clever trick by a "prophet" of Asclepius, using a tame snake, in Pontus and Paphlagonia. When rumors seemed about to expose his trick, the writer reported

... he issued a statement designed to scare them, saying that Pontus was full of atheists and Christians who had the courage to speak very badly of him; these he told them to drive away with stones if they wanted to keep the god happy.

Tertullian's Apologeticus from 197 was written to defend Christians who were being persecuted and was addressed to Roman governors.

In AD 250, Emperor Decius issued a decree requiring public sacrifice, which was like a promise of loyalty to the emperor and the established order. There is no proof that the decree aimed to target Christians, but it was a way to show loyalty. Decius sent out groups to visit cities and villages to watch the sacrifices and give written certificates to all citizens who did them. Christians were often given chances to avoid more punishment by publicly offering sacrifices or burning incense to Roman gods, and were accused by the Romans of not respecting the gods when they refused. Refusal led to arrest, imprisonment, torture, and executions. Christians ran away to safe places in the countryside, and some bought their certificates, called libelli. Several meetings at Carthage discussed how much the community should accept these lapsed Christians.

The persecutions reached their peak with Diocletian and Galerius at the end of the third and beginning of the 4th century. Their actions against Christians, considered the largest, were to be the last major Roman pagan actions. The Edict of Serdica, also called Edict of Toleration by Galerius, was issued in 311 in Serdica (today Sofia, Bulgaria) by Emperor Galerius, officially ending the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. Constantine the Great soon came to power and in 313 fully legalized Christianity. It was not until Theodosius I in the latter 4th century, however, that Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Controversies

See also: Christian martyrs

The stories of early Christian martyrs are often debated. Historians note that telling these stories can be tricky because they can make some people look like heroes and others like villains. Even in the early days of Christianity, people argued about who truly counted as a martyr.

One famous historian, Gibbon, thought that many stories of martyrs exaggerated how many people were treated harshly. Other experts built on his ideas, saying that such stories might have been stretched to help create a strong Christian identity. However, many modern historians believe the persecutions were very serious, even if some details were later added.

There is also much discussion about how many true accounts of martyrs exist. Some writings, called the Acts of the Martyrs, contain many different stories about arrests and trials of early Christians. These stories were often written long after the events and can be hard to verify. Scholars sort these accounts into three groups: official records, stories based on those records, and later fictional tales. Most agree that the first group is likely true, while the third is clearly made up. The middle group remains debated.

The work of Eusebius, an early Christian writer, is also examined closely. While he made some mistakes, many of his stories are still considered reliable because he included many original sources in his writing.

Historians also discuss the idea of “voluntary martyrdom,” where some Christians seemed to ask to be martyrs. Some believe this was a common practice, while others think it was rare. Debate continues about whether these volunteers should be counted as true martyrs.

Finally, estimating the total number of Christian martyrs during severe persecutions is difficult. Different historians offer varying numbers, but all agree that the suffering of Christians during these times was significant, regardless of the exact count.