Second Bulgarian Empire

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1422. It was the successor to the First Bulgarian Empire and became a very important power in the Balkans. Under leaders like Tsars Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II, the empire grew strong and defeated other empires in big battles.

In 1205, Kaloyan won a major battle against the Latin Empire at the Battle of Adrianople. His nephew, Ivan Asen II, made Bulgaria powerful again, stretching from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The economy did well during his time. But later, the empire faced many attacks from groups like the Mongols, Byzantines, Hungarians, and Serbs, which made it weaker.

Even with strong influence from the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian artists and builders created their own special styles. The capital city, Tarnovo, became a busy place for culture and learning and was called a "New Constantinople". After the empire was taken over by the Ottomans, many Bulgarian teachers and writers moved to places like Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Russian principalities, sharing their culture and ideas with others.

Nomenclature

See also: White Wallachia

People at the time usually called this country Bulgaria. During the rule of Kaloyan, some also called it the land of both Bulgarians and Vlachs. Important leaders like Pope Innocent III and others called it Bulgaria or the Bulgarian Empire in their letters.

Today, historians call this country the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Second Bulgarian Tsardom, or the Second Bulgarian Kingdom to tell it apart from the First Bulgarian Empire. Some older writings, especially from around the year 1200 to 1250, called it the Empire of Vlachs and Bulgarians. Other names used include the Vlach–Bulgarian Empire, the Bulgarian–Wallachian Empire, or the Romanian–Bulgarian Empire. In Romanian history books, the last name is sometimes used.

Some old Arab writings from the 1200s used the name Wallachia instead of Bulgaria. They described Wallachia and even gave its location with special coordinates, calling the place "al-Awalak" and its people "ulaqut" or "ulagh".

Background

In 1018, the Byzantine emperor Basil II took over the First Bulgarian Empire. He was careful with how he ruled the new lands. He kept the old tax system, laws, and power of local nobles the same until he died in 1025. The Bulgarian church was placed under the control of the church leaders in Constantinople, but it kept some independence.

As the Byzantine Empire grew weaker, attacks by groups like the Pechenegs and higher taxes caused people to be unhappy. This led to big uprisings in 1040–41, the 1070s, and the 1080s. Two big uprisings happened in what is now Macedonia, led by Peter Delyan and Georgi Voiteh, but they were stopped by Byzantine leaders. Later, there were also rebellions in other areas.

History

Rebellion

The rule of the last Komnenian emperor made life harder for Bulgarian farmers and nobles. In 1185, two brothers from Tarnovo asked the emperor for land to live on in exchange for helping defend it. The emperor refused and insulted one of the brothers. In response, the brothers built a church and showed people an important religious symbol, calling for a rebellion against the Byzantines. One brother was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria. Almost all of Bulgaria north of the Balkan Mountains joined the rebellion, and they got help from the Cumans, a group of people living north of the Danube River. The Cumans became important soldiers in the Bulgarian army.

The Bulgarians attacked areas in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army fought with other groups. The Byzantines tried to stop the rebellion but faced many problems. The Bulgarians managed to keep their land and later won big battles, capturing important cities and treasures.

Rise

The throne was taken by Kaloyan, the youngest brother of the rebel leaders. He wanted Bulgaria to be recognized and to free more land. Kaloyan made deals with other leaders and the Pope, but kept Bulgaria’s traditions. After the leaders of the Fourth Crusade attacked Constantinople, Kaloyan defeated them and took back more land. However, after Kaloyan was killed, his cousin Boril took over but struggled to keep the empire strong.

Ivan Asen II, son of one of the rebel leaders, became emperor. He made peace with neighbors, won big battles, and took control of many cities. His rule brought stability and growth to Bulgaria.

Decline

After Ivan Asen II died, his young son Kaliman I took over. Without strong leadership, Bulgaria began to weaken. Other powers like Nicaea and Hungary took advantage of this weakness. Civil wars and outside attacks made things worse. Leaders came and went, and the country faced many problems, including attacks from the Mongols.

Temporary stabilization

In 1300, Theodore Svetoslav took control and worked to rebuild the country. He made peace with neighbors and brought back stability and prosperity.

Fall

In the 1340s, the Ottoman Turks began attacking Bulgarian lands. Despite efforts to resist, the Ottomans captured more and more towns. By the late 1300s, the Ottomans had taken most of Bulgaria, ending the Second Bulgarian Empire. Some resistance continued, but the medieval Bulgarian state came to an end.

Administration, territorial division, society

The Second Bulgarian Empire was ruled by a Tsar, which means Emperor. The Tsar had the most power over everything, both in government and the church. When a Tsar was very young, a group of leaders, including the mother, the head priest, and important family members, would help run the country.

The way the Empire was organized was inspired by the nearby Byzantine Empire. Many important jobs and titles came from Byzantine ways, sometimes using Greek words or being changed into Bulgarian. Big meetings of important leaders, called the Bolyar Council, talked about big decisions like going to war or making peace. The top leaders worked closely with the Tsar.

The capital city was Tarnovo, which was directly controlled by the Tsar. The Empire was split into areas called provinces, each led by a governor chosen by the Tsar. These areas were further divided into smaller parts.

People in the Empire were mainly in three groups: clergy, nobility, and peasants. The nobility included wealthy and powerful families called bolyars, who owned lots of land and had important jobs. Most people were peasants, who worked the land and lived under the rules of either the central government or local noble families. Over time, more peasants came under the control of these local nobles.

Military

Main article: Medieval Bulgarian army

The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire led the army, with a velik (great) voivoda as the second-in-command. Officers called voivodas led smaller groups, and a protostrator helped protect certain areas and gather soldiers. In the late 1200s, the army had about 40,000 soldiers. By the early 1300s, it could gather around 100,000 men. However, by the late 1300s, the army shrank to under 10,000 soldiers.

The Bulgarian army used clever tactics and knew the land well, especially the Balkan mountains, which helped protect the country. They were known for moving quickly, often sending fast horse soldiers to attack enemy lands, destroying crops, and taking people and animals. The army had strong tools for attacking cities, like battering rams, tall towers, and catapults.

Bulgaria built many forts to guard the country. The capital, Tarnovo, was in the center, with lines of forts along rivers and mountains to the north, south, and west. Over time, the Bulgarian army also included soldiers from other places, such as Cuman horse soldiers, Western knights, Mongols, and others, which helped in battles against their enemies.

Economy

See also: Medieval Bulgarian coinage

The Second Bulgarian Empire's economy relied on farming, mining, crafts, and trade. Farming and raising animals were very important from the 1100s to the 1300s. Areas like Moesia, Zagore, and Dobrudzha grew lots of grain, such as wheat. Other places grew vegetables, fruit, and grapes, especially after the 1200s. The country had many forests and good land for raising sheep and cows, mostly in the hilly areas. Sericulture and apiculture were also common, and honey and wax from Zagore were very popular in nearby markets.

More towns helped grow crafts, metalwork, and mining. People made food like bread and cheese, and worked with leather, wood, and cloth. Varna was famous for making clothes from fox fur. There were also blacksmiths who made tools and big machines for battles. Metalworking was strong in places like Chiprovtsi, Velbazhd, Sofia, Tarnovo, and Messembria.

The empire made and used more money over time, especially under Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria. Leaders like Kaloyan and Constantine Tikh Asen set up places to make coins. Making coins got harder after some upsets in the late 1200s, but picked up again later. Coins from other countries were used too, but Bulgarian coins became more common by the 1300s. Some local leaders also made their own coins.

Religion

Religious policy

After Bulgaria was re-established, its leaders wanted to be recognized as a major power. They wanted their ruler to have an imperial title and to restore the Bulgarian Patriarchate, which was very important for them. Because Bulgaria was often at war with the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian leaders turned to the Pope for help. Tsar Kaloyan, who ruled from 1197 to 1207, wrote to Pope Innocent III asking for an imperial title and a Patriarchate. In return, Kaloyan agreed to accept the Pope's authority over the Bulgarian Church. On October 7, 1205, Kaloyan was crowned King by a representative of the Pope, and the Archbishop Basil of Tarnovo was named Primate. Basil called himself Patriarch, and the Pope did not object. Like Boris I, who lived three centuries earlier, Kaloyan was mainly interested in getting political benefits from the Pope, not in truly changing his religion to Roman Catholicism. This agreement with the Pope lasted until 1235 but did not change the Bulgarian Church, which kept its Eastern Orthodox traditions and practices.

Bulgaria wanted to become a major religious center for Orthodox Christians. After Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became an important center for Orthodox Christianity for a time. Bulgarian rulers collected relics of Christian saints to make their capital more important. In 1235, the restored Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized at the Council of Lampsacus, which helped make Tarnovo known as a "Second Constantinople". The Patriarchate strongly opposed efforts to unite the Orthodox Church with Rome. They criticized the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor for being willing to make concessions at the Second Council of Lyon between 1272 and 1274. Patriarch Ignatius was called a "pillar of Orthodoxy". Envoys were sent to the Patriarch of Jerusalem to discuss working together against the Byzantines, but this did not succeed.

In the 14th century, there were disagreements between the Bulgarian Patriarchate and the Patriarchate of Constantinople about who had authority over the Bulgarian church. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarch Callistus I claimed that the Bulgarian church should pay tribute to Constantinople, but the Bulgarian church leaders ignored these claims because there were no documents to support them.

The Bulgarian Patriarchate was organized similarly to the church in the First Bulgarian Empire. The head of the church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was part of the State Council and sometimes acted as a ruler when there was no tsar. The patriarch was helped by a Synod made up of bishops, important church leaders, and sometimes representatives from the government. The Bulgarian Church followed the official policies of the state closely. Patriarch Joachim III was executed for treason because he was suspected of working with the Mongols. The Bulgarian Patriarchate included different areas, and at its strongest time under Tsar Ivan Asen II, who ruled from 1218 to 1241, it included 14 main church areas, such as Preslav, Cherven, Lovech, Sofia, Ovech, Drastar, Vidin, Serres, Philippi, Messembria, Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd, as well as the important church centers of Tarnovo and Ohrid.

Hesychasm

Main article: Hesychasm

Hesychasm is a tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that became popular in the Balkans during the 14th century. Hesychasm taught a special way of praying that, when done with the right breathing, might help a person experience a special divine light. Tsar Ivan Alexander, who ruled from 1331 to 1371, supported Hesychasm and protected a monk named Gregory of Sinai. In 1335, Ivan Alexander gave money to build a monastery near Paroria in the Strandzha Mountains. This monastery attracted church leaders from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia. Hesychasm became very important in the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, especially through the work of Gregory's disciple Theodosius of Tarnovo. Theodosius founded the Kilifarevo Monastery near Tarnovo, which became a center for Hesychastic and literary activities. Hesychastic leaders stayed connected with each other, which helped cultural and religious exchanges in the Balkans.

Bogomilism and other heresies

Main article: Bogomilism

Bogomilism was a religious group that started in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. They believed in ideas that were very different from mainstream Christianity and were seen as heretics by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Bogomilism became stronger in Bulgaria during the rule of Tsar Boril (1207–18), especially because the country faced many military and political problems. In 1211, Tsar Boril held a meeting in Tarnovo to deal with the Bogomils. Those who did not return to the Orthodox Church were exiled. Even though Bulgaria had agreed to follow the Pope at that time, the meeting followed Orthodox Church rules. Because of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced, though not completely gone.

In the 14th century, other religious groups such as the Adamites and Barlaamism came to Bulgaria from the Byzantine Empire. These groups, along with the Bogomils and Judaism, were condemned by a meeting in Tarnovo in 1360. After that, there are no records of Bogomils in Bulgaria, suggesting their numbers had become very small. The remaining followers of Adamites and Barlaamists continued to be opposed, led by Theodosius of Tarnovo and Patriarch Euthymius.

Culture

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a place where culture grew strongly, especially from the mid-to-late 14th century under Ivan Alexander. Bulgarian art, building styles, and writing spread to places like Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities. Bulgarian culture was shaped by nearby Byzantine styles. The main cultural center was Tarnovo, which became very important, almost like a second Constantinople. Other key places included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and many monasteries.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School

The cities of the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries, with new important places appearing. Cities were often built in hard-to-reach spots and had inner and outer parts. The nobility lived in the inner part with the citadel, while most people lived in the outer part. There were special areas for nobles, craftsmen, merchants, and visitors. The capital, Tarnovo, had three hilly forts—Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost—along the Yantra river. Some areas along the river had spaces for Western Europeans and Jews.

Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus. They were made with crushed stones and plaster, different from older styles. Gates and weak spots had tall towers, usually square but sometimes circle, oval, triangle, or horseshoe-shaped.

Religious buildings were very important. Churches were decorated and strong. In the 13th and 14th centuries, simple basilicas were replaced with cross-shaped, domed churches with one or three sections. The outside of churches had pretty decorations with stone and brick patterns, green, yellow, and brown tiles. This style is seen in churches in Messembria, like the Church of St John Aliturgetos and the 14th century Church of Christ Pantocrator, which had blind arches, flower designs, triangle shapes, blue ceramics, and brick Swastika patterns. Over 20 churches in Tsarevets and many in Trapezitsa had similar decorations. A bell tower above the entrance area is common in Tarnovo school buildings. Some churches, like Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress, were rebuilt with bell towers.

The Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica has a special style with twin towers topped by sharp points. These towers were unique and influenced by Hungary or Transylvania.

The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was first a noble’s castle. It was rebuilt twice under Ivan Asen II and Ivan Alexander. The palace was shaped like an irregular oval and covered 5,000 m² (54,000 sq ft). Walls were up to 2 m (6.6 ft) thick. Entrances had round and square towers; the main entrance was in the northern round tower. Buildings were around a central yard with a fancy royal church. The Patriarch Palace was on the highest point of Tsarevets and was similar in shape to the Imperial Palace, covering 3,000 m² (32,000 sq ft). It had a bell tower next to the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God. Living and office spaces were in the southern part.

Few noble houses remain. North of the Imperial Palace, parts of a noble’s house from the early 13th century were found. It had a Г-shaped layout with a living area and a small church. There were two types of regular homes: semi-dug houses and above-ground houses. Above-ground houses in cities usually had two floors; the lower floor was made of crushed stones with mud or plaster, and the upper floor was made of wood.

Art

Main article: Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School

Bulgarian art from the 13th and 14th centuries is known as the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Though influenced by Byzantine styles, Bulgarian painting had its own features. It included realistic details, individual portraits, and deep feelings. Little everyday art from this time remains. Wall paintings found in the Imperial palace’s throne room showed richly dressed figures. The walls were likely decorated with images of Bulgarian rulers.

The frescoes in the Boyana Church near Sofia are an early example of this style, dating to 1259. They are well-preserved and show the church’s supporters, rulers, and their wives in detailed clothes. The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo in the northeast show how Bulgarian art developed in the 13th and 14th centuries. Early paintings under Ivan Asen II show realistic people with oval faces and full lips. Colors were bright, while 14th-century paintings followed classical Byzantine styles. Both Boyana Church and the Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo are UNESCO World Heritage sites.

In Tarnovo, no full painting groups remain. Thirty-five scenes in the Holy Forty Martyrs Church show soft colors and realism. Pieces of wall paintings were found in churches on Trapezitsa hill, including pictures of soldiers in fancy clothes. The palace chapel had mosaic decorations. In western Bulgaria, local art had older composition styles and flat colors, seen in places like Zemen Monastery, the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica, and the Church of St Peter in Berende.

Many books had beautiful small drawings, like the Bulgarian version of the Manasses Chronicle, the Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander, and the Tomić Psalter, with 554 drawings. These drawings showed religious and everyday scenes and were influenced by Byzantine styles.

The Tarnovo school continued traditions from the First Bulgarian Empire. Notable paintings include St Eleusa (1342) from Messembria, now in Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia, and St John of Rila (14th century) in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church paintings, St John of Rila used realism and unique designs. Some paintings had silver plates with pictures of holy people.

Literature

Main articles: Medieval Bulgarian literature and Tarnovo Literary School

Churches and monasteries were the main places for learning and writing. Monasteries offered advanced studies in grammar, bible texts, theology, ancient writings, and Greek language. Education was for everyone, not just clergy. Those who finished advanced studies were called gramatik (граматик). Books were first written on parchment, but paper, brought through the port of Varna, became used in the early 14th century. Paper was cheaper by the end of the century, leading to more books.

Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries remain. Examples include the "Book of Boril," important for Bulgarian history, and the Dragan Menaion, with early Bulgarian hymns and services for Bulgarian saints like John of Rila, Cyril and Methodius, and emperor Peter I. Two poems by a Byzantine poet in Tarnovo’s court survive, written for the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II and Irene Komnene Doukaina. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and called him very handsome.

In the 14th century, Emperor Ivan Alexander and scholars and church leaders supported literature, leading to a literary revival called the Tarnovo Literary School. Literature included translations from Greek and new religious and secular works like praise writings, stories of saints’ lives, hymns, chronicles, poems, novels, tales, legal books, and medicine and science works.

The first notable 14th-century Bulgarian writer was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), influenced by Hesychasm. His important student was Euthymius of Tarnovo (c. 1325 – c. 1403), Patriarch of Bulgaria from 1375 to 1393 and founder of the Tarnovo Literary School. Euthymius reformed Bulgarian spelling and grammar, making texts more uniform.

The Ottoman conquest made many scholars and students of Euthymius leave Bulgaria, taking their work to Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Russian lands. So many Bulgarian texts went to Russia that scholars note a strong South Slavonic influence on the Russian language. A new, more formal style of Church Slavonic developed, replacing older spoken styles. A new writing style focused on stories of saints’ lives. Euthymius’s friend Cyprian became metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus', bringing Bulgarian writing styles to Moscow. Gregory Tsamblak worked in Serbia and Moldavia before becoming metropolitan of Kiev in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He wrote sermons, services, and stories of saints, including a praise for Euthymius. Another important Bulgarian, Constantine of Kostenets, worked in Serbia and wrote a biography of despot Stefan Lazarević, called the most important old Serbian historical work by historian George Ostrogorsky.

Popular tales included myths and fortune-telling books predicting events from dreams and astrology. Some had political ideas, like a story about an earthquake confusing people and making them disrespect the emperor. Church leaders banned these tales, listing them as forbidden books. Still, they spread to Russia; a 16th-century Russian noble, Andrey Kurbsky, called them "Bulgarian fables".