Second Temple period

The Second Temple period refers to about 600 years in Jewish history, from 516 BCE to 70 CE, when the Second Temple stood in Jerusalem. It started when Jewish people returned to their homeland after being taken away to Babylon. They rebuilt their temple and their city. This period ended when a big war between Jews and Romans happened, and the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple.

During this time, many important things happened. Jewish people lived under different rulers, including Persians, Greeks, and finally Romans. Some Jews fought against Greek rule in what is called the Maccabean Revolt and created their own kingdom for a while. Later, Romans took control.

This period was also when many important Jewish traditions began. Writings that are now part of the Hebrew Bible were created, and new religious groups formed. After the Temple was destroyed, Jewish life changed greatly, and new ways of practicing their faith developed.

History

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Second Temple period.

Persian period (538–332 BCE)

Main articles: Return to Zion and Yehud (Persian province)

Illustrations by Gustav Dore

According to the Book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE. This led to the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem between 521 and 516 BCE. The Persians allowed local leaders to return and rebuild religious sites.

During this time, Judah became a smaller area ruled by leaders appointed by the Persians. A second group returned in 456 BCE, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, to help restore Jerusalem and enforce religious laws.

Hellenistic period (333–110 BCE)

Main articles: Hellenistic Palestine and Coele-Syria

In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region, beginning the Hellenistic period. After his death, his empire was divided, and Judea became a border area between two new kingdoms. Greek culture spread, influencing many people.

Later, the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV tried to ban Jewish traditions, leading to a revolt known as the Maccabean Revolt.

Maccabean Revolt (167–140 BCE)

Main article: Maccabean Revolt

Further information: Maccabees

The revolt began when a Jewish priest named Mattathias killed someone who was following Greek orders. His son, Judas Maccabeus, led the fight against the Seleucids. They recaptured Jerusalem and cleaned the Temple, which is celebrated today as the holiday of Hannukkah.

Hasmonean period (140–63 BCE)

Main article: Hasmonean Judea

Further information: Hasmonean dynasty

After the revolt, the Hasmonean leaders ruled Judea independently. They expanded their land and sometimes forced nearby people to follow Jewish customs. Their rule ended when the Romans invaded in 63 BCE.

Hasmonean civil war

Main article: Hasmonean Civil War

After the death of Queen Salome Alexandra, her two sons fought for control. The Romans decided the conflict and made Judea a vassal state under Roman control.

Early Roman period (63 BCE–70 CE)

Further information: Roman Palestine

In 63 BCE, the Romans took control of Judea. Herod the Great became king and built many important structures, including expanding the Temple in Jerusalem.

Herodian dynasty

Main article: Herodian dynasty

Herod the Great ruled with support from the Romans and built many grand buildings. After his death in 4 BCE, his kingdom was divided among his sons.

Roman Judaea

Main article: Judaea (Roman province)

In 6 CE, Judea became a Roman province. Jerusalem grew large, with a population estimated between 70,000 and 100,000 people.

First Jewish–Roman War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66 CE, Jewish people in Judea rebelled against Roman rule. After a long and hard fight, the Romans captured Jerusalem in 70 CE, destroying the Temple and much of the city. Many people were killed or taken away during the war.

Aftermath

Main article: Rabbinic period

Further information: Bar Kokhba revolt and History of the Jews in the Roman Empire

After the war, there were more uprisings against Roman rule. Jewish life changed greatly, and many Jewish traditions were written down in books like the Mishnah and Talmud. Over time, many Jewish people moved to other parts of the world, but some stayed in the land of Israel.

Religion

Main article: Second Temple Judaism

During the 600 years when the Second Temple stood in Jerusalem, many new religious ideas and groups appeared. Important developments include the growth of the Hebrew Bible, the creation of synagogues, and the formation of Jewish beliefs about the future.

Jewish tradition says that special messages from God, called prophecy, stopped early in this time. As the Jewish people faced challenges, they needed guidance more than ever. During this period, Jewish ideas were shaped by Greek thought, especially among Jews living far from Jerusalem. New groups such as the Pharisees and Sadducees formed, showing the many ways Jews practiced their faith. This was also the time when Christianity began as a Jewish group, with Jesus of Nazareth as its leader. After his death, his followers spread his teachings far beyond Jerusalem.

Economy

Almost all of the Jewish people's needs during the Second Temple period were met by what they produced themselves. There was very little buying or selling with other places. Agriculture was very important. The land grew lots of grain, mostly wheat but also barley in drier places. They also grew olive trees, made wine, and grew herbs, garden vegetables, and legumes. Legumes were special because they could be stored for a long time and grew well even when other crops did not.

Livestock gave milk, butter, and cheese, as well as wool. There was also meat for the Roman army, and some fish, often pickled. A place called Tarichaeae along the Sea of Galilee was known for its pickled fish.

There were a few places that grew special crops, like balsam around Jericho. Olive oil was also sold to nearby cities.

The Jewish people mostly used what they had, with only a little trading. The Romans made them pay taxes, but the amount was small. Big trading centers were usually in nearby Phoenician cities.

Jerusalem was an important place for buying and selling, especially for things needed for the Temple and for visitors. The Temple got special foods from farms nearby.

During this time, people spoke two languages: Aramaic and Hebrew. Aramaic was used more in some areas, while Hebrew was used in others. Aramaic became the most common language, but Hebrew was still used, especially for special purposes. Later, Koine Greek became important for trade and government, especially after the Romans came. Greek was used a lot in places like Alexandria, and even in some parts of Judea.

Identity

See also: Jewish identity § History

During the Second Temple period, Jewish identity was tied to being part of an ethnic group. People were seen as Jewish based on their family background and shared traditions. This included following certain religious practices, speaking or connecting to the Hebrew language, and remembering important historical events and leaders such as Moses and David. Key events like the Exodus, the covenant at Mount Sinai, and the Babylonian captivity were important parts of Jewish identity.

The land of Israel held special meaning for Jews, whether they lived there or elsewhere. Even Jews living far away felt a strong connection to Jerusalem and the Temple in Jerusalem. This connection helped keep the Jewish community united, even when members lived in different places.

Demography

This section talks about where people lived during the late Second Temple period.

By area

During this time, many Jewish people lived in areas such as Judea, Galilee, Peraea, Sharon, and western Samaria. Some areas, like central and northern Samaria, were mostly home to Samaritans.

Judea

Judea and Benjamin had many Jewish people living in towns, villages, and farms.

Galilee

Galilee had fewer people at first, mostly in protected spots. Over time, more Jewish families moved there, especially after leaders like Aristobulus I took control. Even after the Romans took over, many more Jewish families settled in Galilee, and it became an important place for Jewish culture.

Perea

We know from old findings that Jewish people lived in Perea during this time. Some places were left empty or destroyed later during big conflicts.

Idumaea

The Edomites, from a land far away, moved into southern Judea long ago and mixed with Jewish people. By the time of the Hasmonean leaders, they had become part of the Jewish community.

Samaria

Most people in Samaria were Samaritans, but there were also Jews, people from other places, and others who had settled there.

Coastal plain (Paralia)

The coastal areas were mostly home to people from other cultures. Only one city, Joppa, had Jewish people living there for a long time.

Total numbers

It is very hard to know exactly how many Jews lived back then. Some experts think there may have been about one million people living in the land, with many of them being Jews. Other old records mention much larger numbers, but these are debated by scholars today.

Material culture

Archaeological evidence shows that Jewish communities in Judea, Galilee, and Gaulanitis had different cultural attitudes but shared religious customs and beliefs. Workshops for kitchen pottery, oil jars, and special ritual baths called mikvaot reveal that Jews began to include religious practices in their homes and daily lives as early as the first century BCE. They also started using stone vessels and a new type of oil lamps around the same time to show their identity.

In wealthy areas of Jerusalem, people used decorated tableware, Italian cooking tools, foreign eating habits, and fancy tombs, showing influence from other cultures. These items were rarely found in Judea, the Jewish Galilee, and Gaulanitis.

Burial

During the Second Temple period, people had two main ways of burying their dead. First, a person was placed in a coffin. After some time, the bones were collected and put into special boxes called ossuaries. These ossuaries were made from limestone and were kept in tombs, sometimes on shelves or in special niches in the walls. They often had beautiful decorations, like palm branches or flowers.

One famous ossuary found in Jerusalem mentions a person named Joseph, who was a leader in those times. People also built large and fancy tombs to show respect and honor. Near Jerusalem, there were many impressive tombs, including some with tall pyramids and detailed carvings. These tombs were built outside the city to follow religious rules. Similar elaborate tombs were also found in other areas, showing that the style from Jerusalem influenced burial practices elsewhere.