Sufism

Sufism is a special kind of spiritual practice found within Islam. It focuses on purifying the heart, growing closer to God, and living a simple and devoted life. People who practice Sufism are called Sufis. They often join groups called orders, which are led by wise teachers. These teachers guide their students along a path that leads back to the time of the Prophet Muhammad.

Sufism began a long time ago in Islamic history. It grew partly because some people felt the need to go deeper than just following rules. Sufis always followed Islamic law, but they also wanted to feel close to God in their everyday lives. They remember God often through a practice called dhikr. Over time, Sufis helped spread Islam to many places through their teaching and kindness.

Even though some strict groups have opposed Sufism in recent times, it continues to be important in many parts of the Islamic world. Sufism has also inspired people in other parts of the world to think more deeply about their own spirits and beliefs.

Definitions

The word tasawwuf (meaning "Sufism") is often called Islamic mysticism. The word Sufi has many meanings in Islamic writings. Old Sufi books, which focused on teachings from the Quran and the sunnah (the actions and teachings of Muhammad), described Sufism as a way to reach ethical and spiritual goals. These books helped guide people toward those goals.

Some modern scholars describe Sufism as making Islamic faith and actions stronger, or as a way to reach good and spiritual ideals. Long ago, European scholars began using the term "Sufism" and often thought of it as a special kind of thinking and writing that was different from what they believed was the strict side of Islam. But historians today, like Nile Green, say that in the past, Sufism and Islam were very much the same. Today, the word "Sufism" is used to talk about many different social, cultural, political, and religious activities connected with Sufis.

Etymology

The word "Sufi" may have started from the Arabic word ṣūf, meaning "wool," because early Sufis often wore woolen clothes as a sign of their simple and spiritual lives. Some thinkers also thought the word came from a Greek word for wisdom, sophos.

Another idea links the word to ṣafā, meaning "purity" in Arabic. This connects to a key Sufi practice called tazkiyah, or self-purification. One Sufi teacher said a Sufi is someone who wears wool and seeks purity. Some also believe the word comes from a group of early followers of Muhammad called the "people of the suffah," who met regularly for spiritual remembrance.

History

Origins

Sufism started in Hejaz, which is now part of Saudi Arabia, and has been a practice of Muslims since the earliest days of Islam. Sufi groups are based on a special promise, or pledge, that was made to Muhammad by his close friends. By making this pledge, they committed themselves to serving God.

Sufis believe that by making this pledge to a wise leader, they are also making a pledge to Muhammad, creating a special spiritual link. Through Muhammad, Sufis seek to learn about and connect with God. Ali, one of Muhammad's close friends, is highly respected in Sufism, and many Sufis believe they can learn about Muhammad through him.

Sufi orders

Historically, Sufis often joined groups called orders. These orders were formed around wise leaders who traced their teachings back to Muhammad through a chain of teachers. These orders meet in special places for spiritual gatherings. They aim for perfect worship and see Muhammad as their ultimate guide.

Sufi orders have influenced many Islamic movements and continue to be important in the Muslim world. They have adapted to different cultures and remain relevant today, especially in places with diverse religious views.

Sufism as an Islamic discipline

Sufism exists in both Sunni and Shia Islam and is a way of deeply understanding and practicing the religion. It focuses on the spiritual side of Islam, aiming to experience God directly through training and inner growth. Sufism is seen as an important part of Islam, helping followers connect with their spiritual side.

Formalization of doctrine

In the eleventh century, Sufism began to organize into formal orders founded by major Islamic scholars. These orders include the Suhrawardiyya, Qadiriyya, Rifa'iyya, Chishtiyya, Shadiliyya, Hamadaniyyah, and Naqshbandiyya. Despite different leaders, all these orders saw themselves as part of traditional Sunni Islam and followed one of its main legal traditions.

Growth of influence

Sufism became very important in Islamic history, spreading across regions from India to Africa. It helped shape Islamic cultures and played a role in spreading Islam. Sufi poets and thinkers greatly influenced areas like Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.

Modern era

In the modern world, Sufism has faced criticism from some strict Islamic groups and modern reformers. However, it continues to be important in many Muslim countries and has spread to places where Muslims are a minority. Sufi orders adapt to their environments, making Sufism relevant in today’s world.

Sufi orders

This section shows the spiritual chains of major Sufi orders and their links to Prophet Muhammad. These chains show how spiritual teachers are connected through their lineage. The names of some intermediate teachers have been left out to keep the chart simple.

Spiritual Chain of Major Sufi Orders

1. Qadiriyya

Main article: Qadiriyya

Shaykh Abdul Qadir al-Jilani → Shaykh Abū Saʿīd al-Mukharramī → Shaykh Abū al-Ḥasan al-Qurashī (al-Ḥakkārī) → Shaykh Abū al-Faraj al-Ṭarsūsī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Tamīmī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Tamīmī → Shaykh Abū Bakr al-Shiblī → Shaykh al-Junayd al-Baghdādī → Shaykh al-Sarī al-Saqaṭī → Shaykh Maʿrūf al-Karkhī → Imam ʿAlī al-Riḍā → Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim → Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir → Imam Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn → Imam al-Ḥusayn → Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

2. Chishti Order

Main article: Chishti Order

Sources:

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti → Khwāja ʿUthmān Harvānī → Ḥājjī Sharīf Zindānī → Muḥammad Maudūd Chishtī → Abū Yūsuf Chishtī → Abū Muḥammad ibn Abī Aḥmad → Abū Aḥmad ʿAbdāl Chishtī → Abū Isḥāq Shāmī Chishtī → Mamshād ʿUlw Dīnawarī → Amīnuddīn Abū Hubayrah Baṣrī → Saʿduddīn Huḍhayfah Marʿashī → Ibrāhīm ibn Adham al-Balkhī → Fuḍayl ibn ʿIyāḍ → ʿAbd al-Wāḥid ibn Zayd → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

3. Naqshbandi

Main article: Naqshbandi

Baha' al-din Naqshband → Sayyid Amīr Kulāl → Muḥammad Bābā Sammāsī → ʿAlī Rāmitanī (Azīzān) → Maḥmūd Anjīr Faghnawī → ʿĀrif Riwgarī → ʿAbd al-Khāliq Ghujduwānī → Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf al-Hamadānī → Abū ʿAlī al-Farmadī al-Ṭūsī → Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī al-Kharaqānī → Abū Yazīd al-Bisṭāmī → Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Qāsim ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr → Salmān al-Fārisī → Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

4. Suhrawardiyya

Source:

Shihab ad-din Suhrawardi → Abū Najīb ʿAbd al-Qādir Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

5. Kubrawiya

Source:

Najm ad-Dīn Kubrā → Shaykh Rūzbahān Baqlī → Khwāja ʿAmmār Yāsir → Shaykh Abū Najīb Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

6. Shadhili

Nūruddīn Abū al-Ḥasan al-Shādhilī → ʿAbd al-Salām ibn Mashīsh → ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Madanī → Taqīuddīn al-Ṣūfī → Fakhruddīn → Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī → Tājuddīn → Shamsuddīn → Zaynuddīn Maḥmūd al-Qazwīnī → Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Baṣrī → Abū al-Qāsim Mirwānī → Abū Muḥammad Saʿīd → Abū Muḥammad Saʿd → Fātiḥ al-Masʿūdī → Saʿīd al-Qirwānī → Abū Muḥammad Jābir → Imām al-Ḥasan → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

7. Rifaʽi

Sayyid Aḥmad ar-Rifāʿī → Sayyid Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ar-Rifāʿī → Sayyid Yaḥyā Naqīb → Sayyid Thābit → Sayyid ʿAlī Hāzim Abū al-Fawāris → Sayyid Abū ʿAlī al-Murtaḍā → Sayyid Abū al-Faḍāʾil → Sayyid Abū al-Makārim al-Ḥasan → Sayyid al-Mahdī al-Makkī → Sayyid Muḥammad Abū al-Qāsim → Sayyid Ḥasan Qāsim Abū Mūsā → Sayyid Abū ʿAbdullāh Ḥusayn → Sayyid Aḥmad Ṣāliḥ al-Akbar → Sayyid Mūsā Sānī → Sayyid Ibrāhīm al-Murtaḍā → Imām Mūsā al-Kāẓim → Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Imām Muḥammad al-Bāqir → Imām Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn → Imām al-Ḥusayn → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Aims and objectives

Sufis believe that while Islam shows the way to God, it is also possible to feel God's presence in everyday life. Their main goal is to please God by returning to a pure, natural state of goodness.

Sufis follow both outer rules of Islam, like prayers and laws, and inner rules that help them become better people. They learn from teachers who pass on spiritual knowledge and guidance. Sufis also deeply respect Muhammad, seeing him as a perfect example to follow.

Sufis combine following Islamic law with inner spiritual growth, believing both are needed for a full religious life.

Devotional practices

The ways Sufis practice their faith can be different for each person. To start, they follow important Islamic rules like praying five times a day and fasting during Ramadan. They also try to live by examples from Muhammad, which helps them grow spiritually.

One key practice is called dhikr, remembering God. This can include repeating God's names or other special words. Some Sufi groups have special ceremonies with music, singing, and even dancing, like the famous Sufi whirling, to help them feel closer to God. Another practice is muraqaba, which is like meditation, where they focus all their thoughts on God.

These practices help Sufis in their journey to become better people and to feel closer to God.

Saints

Main article: Wali

A Walī is an Arabic word that means "friend of God". In Islam, saints are seen as special people chosen by God. They are known for their holiness and are believed to have special gifts, like doing amazing things called miracles. Many early Sufi mystics, such as Hasan of Basra, Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya, and Junayd of Baghdad, became important saints in Islam.

Main article: Ziyara

In Sufism, people often visit the tombs of saints and holy people. This is common in places like South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India, and Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India. In Fes, Morocco, people visit the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and celebrate special events like the Mawlid.

Main article: Karamat

In Sufism, karamat are wonderful deeds or miracles done by saints. These can include predicting the future or understanding people's thoughts. Believing in these miracles has been an important part of Sunni Islam.

A dargah is a shrine built over the grave of a respected religious figure, often a Sufi saint. Sufis visit these shrines for special religious practices. _Dargah_s often include mosques, schools, and places for people to meet and help each other.

Theoretical perspectives

Traditional Islamic teachers have described two main paths in Sufism. One path starts with looking at signs of God's work in the world and moving toward understanding God as the creator. This path focuses on cleaning the heart of anything that blocks recognition of God's presence everywhere. Many Sufi groups follow this way.

Another path begins with feeling pulled toward God. This feeling gives a glimpse of God’s presence right away. While this path also works on cleaning the heart, it starts from a different place. Some famous teachers, like those in the Naqshbandi and Shadhili groups, often follow this way.

Some modern teachers also talk about a third path. This path follows the example of the Prophet Muhammad very closely, believing that his way of living offers a full spiritual guide for everyone, even without a special teacher.

Sufism has also helped shape ideas in many areas of learning. It talks about special inner centers that help people grow spiritually. It also explores how different parts of the heart and soul work together. These ideas have influenced thinkers both inside and outside of Islam.

Prominent Sufis

See also: List of Sufi saints and List of Sufis

Rabi'a Al-'Adawiyya

Rābiʼa al-ʼAdawiyya or Rabia Basri was a Sufi saint, one of the earliest Sufi mystics from Iraq. Rabi'a came from a poor family and was once captured and sold into slavery, but was later freed by her master. She is well-known for her teachings about the importance of loving God. She once said, “If I worship God because I’m afraid of punishment, then punish me. If I worship because I want rewards, then don’t give me rewards. But if I worship only for God, then don’t deny me.”

Junayd of Baghdad

Junayd al-Baghdadi (830–910) was an early Persian Sufi and one of the most famous Islamic saints. He taught in Baghdad and was very important in shaping Sufi beliefs. He was respected by many and often called the “Sultan” among Sufis.

Bayazid Bastami

Bayazid Bastami was a well-known Sufi from the Tayfuriyya order. He was born in 804 in Bastam and was devoted to following Islamic teachings.

Shaykh Abdul Qadir Gilani

Shaykh Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166) was a scholar from Mesopotamia who lived in Baghdad. He studied Islamic law and later returned to Baghdad to teach. He started the Qadiriyya order, which continues today.

Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili

Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258) created the Shadhiliyya order. He taught his followers to be thankful for what they have, rather than trying to give up everything.

Moinuddin Chishti

Moinuddin Chishti (1141–1236) brought the Chishti Order to India. He settled in Ajmer and taught many people, promoting peace between different groups.

Bahauddin Naqshband

Bahauddin Naqshband (1318–1389) started the Naqshbandi order. He taught about inner reflection and balance in life, and his order spread widely.

Ahmad Al-Tijani

Ahmed Tijani (1737–1815) created the Tijaniyya order. He was born in Algeria and died in Fez.

Al-Ghazālī

al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) was a Persian scholar and Sufi. He was known for his many writings on religion and law and was called “Proof of Islam” by others.

Sayyed Badiuddin

Sayyid Badiuddin started the Madariyya order. He was from Syria and later went to India to share his teachings.

Ibn Arabi

Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) (1165–1240) was one of the most famous Sufis. He created the Al Akbariyya order, which is still active today. His writings are studied by many Sufis.

Yusuf Abu al-Haggag

Yusuf Abu al-Haggag (c. 1150 – c. 1245) was a Sufi scholar in Luxor, Egypt. He was known for his devotion and teaching, and people still celebrate his birthday in Luxor today.

Notable Sufi works

Main article: Sufi literature

Some important books about Sufism include:

• Al-Ta'arruf li-Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf (The Exploration of the Path of Sufis) by Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi, a well-known book about Sufism.
• Qūt al-Qulūb (Nourishment of the Hearts) by Abu Talib al-Makki, a detailed guide to Sufi teachings that influenced later works.
• Hilyat al-Awliya wa Tabaqat al-Asfiya (The Ornament of God's Friends and Generations of Pure Ones) by Abu Na'im al-Isfahani, a big collection of stories about Sufi leaders.
• Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya (The Qushayrian Treatise) by al-Qushayri, a key book for learning about Sufism that has been used for many years.
• Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Sciences of Religion) by al-Ghazali, a very important book about Muslim beliefs and practices.
• Al-Ghunya li-Talibi Tariq al-Haqq (Sufficient Provision for Seekers of the Path of the Truth) by 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani.
• 'Awarif al-Ma'arif (The Gifts of Spiritual Perceptions) by Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi, a popular book that became a standard text for new Sufis.
• Al-Hikam al-'Ata'iyya (The Aphorisms of Ibn 'Ata' Allah) by Ibn 'Ata' Allah al-Sakandari, a collection of wise sayings about life and faith.

Sufi commentaries on the Qur'an

Sufis have also written books explaining the deeper meanings of the Qur'an. Some of these books include:

• Tafsir al-Qu'ran al-'Azim (Interpretation of the Great Qur'an) by Sahl al-Tustari, one of the oldest Sufi explanations of the Qur'an.
• Lata'if al-Isharat (Subtleties of the Allusions) by al-Qushayri.
• 'Ara'is al-Bayan fi Haqa'iq aI-Qur'an (The Brides of Explication Concerning the Hidden Realities of the Qur'an) by Ruzbihan al-Baqli.
• Al-Ta'wilat al-Najmiyya (Starry Interpretations) by Najm al-Din Kubra, a work finished by his student Najm al-Din Razi and 'Alā' al-Dawla al-Simnani.
• Ghara'ib al-Qur'an wa Ragha'ib al-Furqan (Wonders of the Qur'an and Desiderata of the Criterion) by Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi.
• Anwar al-Qur'an wa Asrar al-Furqan (Lights of the Qur'an and Secrets of the Criterion) by Mulla 'Ali al-Qari.
• Tafsir Ruh al-Bayan (The Spirit of Explanation in the Commentary on the Qur'an) by Isma'il Haqqi al-Brusawi/Bursevi.
• Al-Bahr al-Madeed fi Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Majeed (The Vast Sea in the Interpretation of the Glorious Qur'an) by Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba.

Reception

Persecution of Sufi Muslims

The treatment of Sufi Muslims has faced challenges throughout history. In some places, Sufi groups have been restricted or opposed by leaders who did not share their beliefs. For example, in Turkey, Sufi groups were banned in 1925 because they did not support the new government’s ideas. In Iran, some Sufi groups have been treated unfairly because they did not agree with the country’s main religious leaders.

In other areas, attacks on Sufi Muslims have come from groups that do not agree with their practices. These groups believe that certain Sufi traditions, like visiting the graves of holy people or celebrating special days, go against their strict religious views.

Perception outside Islam

Many people outside the Muslim world have been interested in Sufi ideas. Some see Sufism as a peaceful and gentle form of Islam. Governments and groups have sometimes supported Sufism because they believe it can help promote understanding and peace among different groups of people.

Similarities with Eastern religions

Some ideas in Sufism are similar to those found in other religions, like Hinduism and Buddhism. For example, certain Sufi beliefs about the soul and spiritual growth have been compared to Hindu and Buddhist ideas.

Influence on Judaism

Sufi ideas have also influenced some Jewish thinkers. One important Jewish book, written by a man named Bahya ibn Paquda, shows clear links to Sufi ethical teachings. Some Jewish groups even created their own versions of Sufi practices, focusing on spiritual growth and deep thought.

Culture

Literature

The 13th century Persian poet Rumi is one of the most important figures in Sufism and one of the greatest poets ever. Many people in the United States enjoy his poems, especially those translated by Coleman Barks. Elif Şafak wrote a novel called The Forty Rules of Love, which tells a fictional story about Rumi and a wise friend named Shams Tabrizi.

Muhammad Iqbal, a famous Urdu poet, wrote about Sufism, philosophy, and Islam in his book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.

Sama

Sama is an important tradition in many Sufi groups. In South Asia, it is especially linked with the Chishti Order. Over time, Sama became a special kind of art. During the time of Khwaja Amir Khusrau and other Sufi teachers like Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya, Sufis used music and poetry to feel deeper love for Allah and his Prophet.

Visual art

Main article: Islamic art

Many artists have used Sufi ideas in their work. One famous painting in the Brooklyn Museum's Islamic gallery shows the Battle of Karbala, an important and sad event in Islamic history. The painting was made by Abbas Al-Musavi and shows Husayn ibn Ali, a respected grandson of the prophet Muhammad, who many consider a hero.

In July 2016, at a Sufi festival in India, a leader from Pakistan spoke about paintings by Farkhananda Khan ‘Fida’. He said the paintings share a message of peace and friendship, which is a big part of Sufism.

Scientific research

A report from 2023 looked at how Sufi spirituality helps with feelings like worry and sadness, showing good results for people’s mental health.

Researchers also studied how Sufi groups in Kazakhstan are involved in community and political activities.

Universities in America now have special programs to study Sufism, making it an important topic for learning and research.

Recent reviews have also tracked how people around the world are studying Sufism and its ideas.