Tibetan Empire

The Tibetan Empire was a powerful state centered on the Tibetan Plateau. It began to grow in the 7th century under the leadership of King Songtsen Gampo from the Yarlung dynasty. The empire reached its largest size under later rulers, stretching from Chang'an in the east all the way west past modern Afghanistan, and down into India.

During its time, the Tibetan Empire became known for its strong military and its important role in spreading Buddhism. King Songtsen Gampo helped start the spread of Buddhism in Tibet and supported translating Buddhist writings. Later, under King Trisong Detsen, Tibetan Buddhism grew even more, with the help of teachers like Guru Padmasambhava.

The empire began to weaken in the 9th century after the death of King Tritsuk Detsen. After his murder, his brother took power but was later killed, leading to the empire breaking apart into smaller, separate regions. Even with its end, the Tibetan Empire left a lasting mark on the culture and history of the area.

History

Namri Songtsen and founding of the dynasty

See also: Timeline of the Tibetan Empire

The Tibetan state began at Taktsé Castle in the Chonggyä district. There, a group helped Tagbu Nyazig rebel against Gudri Zingpoje, who was a vassal of the Zhangzhung empire. They succeeded, and Namri Songtsen became the leader. He conquered the Kingdom of Sumpa and gained control of the area around Lhasa before his assassination around 618. This new state would later be called the "Tibetan Empire". Namri Songtsen sent two embassies to the Chinese Sui dynasty in 608 and 609, showing Tibet's appearance on the world stage.

Reign of Songtsen Gampo (618–650)

Songtsen Gampo was the first great emperor who expanded Tibet's power beyond Lhasa and the Yarlung Valley. He is traditionally credited with introducing Buddhism to Tibet. The Tibetan script was also created during his reign.

When his father Namri Songtsen died, Songtsen Gampo took control. He proved skilled in diplomacy and combat. His minister, Myang Mangpoje, defeated the Sumpa people. Later, minister Gar Tongtsen took over.

The Chinese records mention an envoy to Tibet in 634. The Tibetan Emperor requested marriage to a Chinese princess but was refused. In 635–36, the Emperor attacked and defeated the Tuyuhun, who controlled important trade routes into China. After some military campaigns, the Chinese emperor agreed to provide a Chinese princess to Songtsen Gampo.

After a dispute with his younger brother, the brother was killed by his own minister. The Chinese Princess Wencheng departed China in 640 to marry Songtsen Gampo and arrived a year later. She is traditionally credited with bringing Buddhism to Tibet.

Songtsen Gampo’s sister married the king of Zhangzhung, but when he refused to complete the marriage, she helped her brother defeat him and incorporate Zhangzhung into the Tibetan Empire. Songtsen Gampo died in 650 and was succeeded by his infant grandson Trimang Lön. Real power was left in the hands of the minister Gar Tongtsen.

Reign of Mangsong Mangtsen (650–676)

In 663, the Azha or Tuyuhun kingdom was defeated by the Tibetan army and became part of Tibetan culture.

After incorporating Tuyuhun, minister Gar Tongtsen died in 667. Between 665 and 670, Khotan was defeated by the Tibetans, and conflicts with the Chinese Tang dynasty followed. In 670, Tibet attacked Chinese territories in the western Tarim Basin and conquered Aksu, ending Chinese control there. They held these territories until 692 when the Chinese regained them.

Emperor Mangsong Mangtsen married Thrimalö, who became important in Tibetan history. The emperor died in 676–677, and Zhangzhung revolts happened after his death. His son Tridu Songtsen was born that same year.

Reign of Tridu Songtsen (677–704)

The power of Emperor Tridu Songtsen was shared with his mother, Thrimalö, and the influence of the Gar clan. In 692, the Tibetans lost the Tarim Basin to the Chinese. Gar Trinring Tsendrö defeated the Chinese in battle in 696. In 698, the emperor had the Gar clan massacred, ending their influence.

From 700 until his death, the emperor campaigned in the northeast while his mother ruled in Central Tibet. In 702, peace was made with Zhou China under Empress Wu Zetien. In 703, Tridu Songtsen invaded Jang and in 704, he invaded Mywa but died during that campaign.

Reign of Tride Tsuktsen (704–754)

Gyeltsugru, later known as Tride Tsuktsen, was born in 704. After Tridu Songtsen’s death, his mother Thrimalö ruled as regent for the infant Gyältsugru. Thrimalö arranged a royal marriage with a Chinese princess. Gyältsugru was officially enthroned as Tride Tsuktsen in 712 after Thrimalö’s death.

The Tibetans were allied with the Türgesh and fought with China on and off. They also aided the Türgesh against Muslim Arabs. In 734, a Tibetan princess married the Türgesh Qaghan. The Chinese attacked the Tibetans, who suffered defeats. The Türgesh empire later collapsed.

In 737, the Tibetans attacked the king of Bru-za (Gilgit), who asked for Chinese help but had to submit to Tibet. In 747, Chinese general Gao Xianzhi tried to reopen communications between Central Asia and Kashmir.

By 750, the Tibetans had lost most of their Central Asian lands to the Chinese. In 753, the kingdom of “Little Balur” (modern Gilgit) was captured by the Chinese. After a Chinese defeat by the Caliphate and Karluks in 751, Tibetan influence grew again. Tibet conquered large parts of northern India.

In 755, Tride Tsuktsen was killed by ministers Lang and ‘Bal. Evidence showed they were disloyal, and they were killed by the army.

Reign of Trisong Detsen (756–797)

In 756, prince Song Detsen became king with the name Trisong Detsen. His reign saw the reassertion of Tibetan influence in Central Asia. Tibetan troops reached the Tang capital Chang'an in 763 and occupied it for fifteen days. Nanzhao remained under Tibetan control until 794 when they turned against Tibet and helped China defeat them.

In 785, a Chinese official repulsed Tibetan invasions. An attempt at peace in 787 failed, and hostilities lasted until the Sino-Tibetan treaty of 821.

Recent research shows Christianity may have been present in Tibet as early as the sixth and seventh centuries. By the eighth century, there was a strong Christian presence.

There is a stone pillar in Lhasa dating to around 764 CE during Trisong Detsen’s reign. It contains an account of the conquest of northwestern China, including the capture of Chang'an in 763 CE.

Reign of Muné Tsenpo (c. 797–799?)

Trisong Detsen had four sons. The eldest, Mutri Tsenpo, died young. When Trisong Detsen retired, he gave power to his eldest surviving son, Muné Tsenpo. Most sources say his reign lasted about a year and a half. After his death, Mutik Tsenpo was next in line but had been banished. The youngest brother, Tride Songtsen, was officially enthroned in AD 804.

Reign of Tride Songtsen (799–815)

Under Tride Songtsen, there was a long war with the Abbasid Caliphate. Tibetans captured some Caliphate troops and used them on the eastern frontier. Tibetans reached as far west as Samarkand and Kabul. Abbasid forces gained the upper hand, and the Tibetan governor of Kabul submitted to the Caliphate and became a Muslim around 812 or 815. The Caliphate struck east from Kashmir but were held off by the Tibetans. The Uyghur Khaganate attacked Tibet from the northeast, and strife continued between the Uyghurs and Tibetans.

Reign of Tritsu Detsen (815–838)

Tritsu Detsen, known as Ralpachen, is important to Tibetan Buddhists as one of the three Dharma Kings who brought Buddhism to Tibet. He supported Buddhism generously, inviting craftsmen, scholars, and translators. He promoted written Tibetan and translations, aided by the development of a detailed Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicon called the Mahavyutpatti.

Tibetans attacked Uyghur territory in 816 and were attacked in return in 821. After Tibetan raids into Chinese territory, Buddhists in both countries sought mediation.

Ralpachen was murdered by two ministers who then placed his anti-Buddhist brother, Langdarma, on the throne.

Tibet remained a major Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century. Under Ralpachen, Tibet's political power was at its greatest, stretching as far as Mongolia and Bengal, and entering into treaties with China as equals.

A Sino-Tibetan treaty was agreed on in 821/822 under Ralpachen, establishing peace for over two decades. A bilingual account of this treaty is inscribed on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.

Reign of Langdarma (838–842)

The reign of Langdarma was troubled by external issues. The Uyghur state collapsed under pressure from the Kyrgyz in 840, and many displaced people fled to Tibet. Langdarma was assassinated by a Buddhist hermit in 842.

Decline

The Battle of U-Yor over Langdarma's successor led to the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. The following period, known as the Era of Fragmentation, saw rebellions against the remains of imperial Tibet and the rise of regional warlords.

Military

The soldiers of the Tibetan Empire wore strong armor, including lamellar and chainmail, and were skilled with swords and lances. One old writer from Tibet described three different types of this armor, dating back to the time of early kings in the seventh to ninth centuries.

A Chinese writer from the same time, Du You, described how Tibetan soldiers fought. He noted that they wore chain mail that covered them completely except for their eyes, making it hard for bows and swords to hurt them. In battle, they would dismount their horses and stand in lines. If one soldier fell, another would step in right away, and they would keep fighting until the end without retreating. Their lances were longer and thinner than those used in China, and though their archery was not as strong, their armor was very tough. Tibetan soldiers always carried swords, even when not at war.

There are stories that Tibetans may have shared their armor styles with neighbors. For example, when a leader of the Turgesh people fought against the Arabs, he is said to have worn Tibetan armor that protected him from arrows, though one arrow did wound his arm.

The officers in the Tibetan Empire were not full-time soldiers. They were called together only when needed and were given a special golden arrow as a sign of their role. Once a year, these officers would meet to promise their loyalty, and every three years, they would gather for a special feast.

When the Tibetan army went to war, they did not carry food with them. Instead, they lived off what they could take from the places they attacked.

Society

Unearthed artifacts from the Tibetan Empire include a 1500-year-old pottery piece and a gold bottle found in the tomb of Amdo. Other items include a Sasan-style long cup made of yellow agate, a tin plate with figures painted in gold, and a gold cup with a handle.

Early Tibetans worshipped a god of war called "Yuandi," as described in the Old Book of Tang. According to this book, they grew black oats, red pulse, barley, and buckwheat, but did not grow rice. Their main animals were yaks, pigs, dogs, sheep, and horses. They also had many flying squirrels, larger than cats, whose fur was used for clothes. The people had plenty of gold, silver, copper, and tin. They moved with their flocks to find grass and did not stay in one place, though some had walled cities. Their capital was called Lohsieh, and their houses had flat roofs and could be very tall. Important people lived in large felt tents called fulu. Their living spaces were often dirty, and they did not comb their hair or wash often. They drank wine together and used felt plates and special cups made from dough filled with broth and cream.