Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 661 to 750. It began when Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Greater Syria, became caliph after winning the First Fitna in 661. Damascus became the capital, and Syria remained the heart of the Umayyad power.

The Umayyads carried on the early Muslim conquests, expanding into places like the Maghreb, Transoxiana, Sindh, and Hispania. At its largest, the Umayyad Caliphate covered about 15,000,000 km², making it one of the largest empires in history. It was later overthrown by the Abbasids in 750.

The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over many different groups of people. Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions if they paid a special tax called jizya. This helped the Umayyads govern such a large and varied area. The Umayyad period is also known for the early development of Islamic art.

History

Origins

The Umayyads were a clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. By the end of the 6th century, they had become important leaders in trade and formed alliances with Arab tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts. After Mecca was captured by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 630, the Umayyads converted to Islam and moved to Medina to keep their influence in the new Muslim community.

When Muhammad died in 632, there was debate over who would lead the Muslim community. The early followers of Muhammad, called the Muhajirun, chose Abu Bakr as the first caliph. He favored the Umayyads by giving them important roles, including leadership in the Muslim conquest of Syria. One of these leaders was Yazid, the son of Abu Sufyan.

Caliphate of Uthman

Uthman ibn Affan, a wealthy Umayyad, became caliph after Abu Bakr and Umar. He appointed family members as leaders in newly conquered areas, which caused resentment among other Muslims. This anger led to Uthman's death in 656.

First Fitna

After Uthman's death, Ali became caliph, but faced opposition from leaders who wanted to keep power within the Quraysh tribe. Ali defeated them in battles but faced challenges from Mu'awiya, who wanted to avenge Uthman's death. After years of conflict, Mu'awiya became caliph in 661.

Sufyanid period

Caliphate of Mu'awiya

Mu'awiya moved the capital to Damascus and focused on strengthening his rule. He faced opposition from other Muslim groups but managed to keep control through alliances and military campaigns.

Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule

Mu'awiya chose his son Yazid I as his successor, introducing hereditary rule. Yazid faced challenges, including a revolt by Ali's son Husayn, who was killed in the Battle of Karbala. Another challenge came from Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who claimed the caliphate. After Yazid's death, his son Mu'awiya II took over but died soon after, ending the Sufyanid line.

Early Marwanid period

Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna

After Mu'awiya II's death, Marwan ibn al-Hakam became caliph with the help of loyal tribes. He defeated opponents in battles and restored Umayyad control. His son Abd al-Malik continued to strengthen the caliphate.

Domestic consolidation and centralization

Abd al-Malik worked to unify the caliphate by creating a professional army, changing the official language to Arabic, and building important monuments like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Renewal of conquests

Under leaders like al-Walid I, the Umayyad Caliphate expanded into areas such as Armenia, North Africa, and parts of the Iberian Peninsula. These conquests brought great wealth to the caliphate.

Late Marwanid period

Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion

Hisham, the last son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph, saw the end of major expansions. Battles against the Byzantines and other groups resulted in some victories but also defeats. The caliphate faced revolts and challenges to its authority.

Third Fitna

Internal conflicts and opposition from groups like the Kharijites weakened the Umayyad rule. The Abbasid family eventually led a revolution that overthrew the Umayyads, ending their caliphate in 750. Some Umayyads escaped and continued their influence in other regions.

Administration

The early Umayyad caliphs set up a stable way to run their big empire. They used ideas and ways of doing things from the Byzantine Empire, which had ruled the same places before. They had four main groups to help run things: for politics, for the army, for collecting taxes, and for religious matters. Each of these groups had many smaller teams to help with different jobs.

The empire was split into several areas, and each area had a leader called a governor. The caliph chose these governors. The governor was in charge of many things in their area, like the religious leaders, army leaders, police, and people who helped with everyday jobs. The people in each area paid taxes, and some of the money went to the main government in Damascus. Later on, some governors kept extra money for themselves instead of sending it to Damascus.

The Umayyad army was mostly made up of Arab people, especially those living in cities in Syria and tribes that had worked with the Roman army before. Soldiers were listed and paid by the Army Ministry. The army was split into groups based on cities with strong walls. There were around 300,000 soldiers listed in the year 700.

The Umayyads also made their own coins. At first, they used coins from the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires, but later they began making their own. These new coins had Arabic writing on them and were a big change from the old designs. The main gold coin was called a dinar, the silver coin was called a dirham, and the bronze coin was called a fals or fulus.

Social organization

The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes: Muslim Arabs, Muslim non-Arabs, Dhimmis (non-Muslim free persons such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians), and Slaves. The Muslim Arabs were at the top of society and believed it was their duty to rule the areas they had taken over. They thought of themselves as better than other Muslims and usually did not mix with them.

As more people converted to Islam, many of these new Muslims were not Arab. This caused problems because they did not have the same rights as the Arab Muslims. With fewer non-Muslims, the money from taxes they paid also went down. These issues grew until they helped lead to the Abbasid Revolt in the 740s.

Non-Muslim groups, called dhimmis, included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagans. They were allowed to live safely as long as they accepted Muslim rule. They paid a special tax called jizya, while Muslims paid a different tax called zakat. If non-Muslims converted to Islam, they would stop paying jizya and pay zakat instead.

Even though non-Muslims could not hold the highest government jobs, they worked in many important positions. For example, a Christian man named Sarjun ibn Mansur helped manage money for the government in Syria for many years.

Architecture

Main article: Umayyad architecture

The Umayyads built impressive congregational mosques and grand palaces across their empire. Many of their famous buildings are found in the Levant region, where they were based. Some of their most well-known structures include the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus. They also built special desert palaces, like Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qusayr 'Amra.

Umayyad buildings mixed styles from different cultures, such as Greek, Persian, and others, creating something new. They used beautiful decorations, including mosaics, which often did not show people or animals, showing a different style from before. Their buildings helped shape what Islamic architecture would become. Later rulers in al-Andalus, like those in the Emirate and the Caliphate of Córdoba, continued this tradition, building wonders such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba and Madinat al-Zahra.

Legacy

The Umayyad Caliphate expanded its lands greatly but also faced challenges in managing such a large area. They often favored older Arab families, including their own, over new converts to Islam. Because of this, many people thought they did not treat all Muslims equally.

During this time, Arabic became the main language for government work. Many people started converting to Islam, making the caliphate’s lands more united.

Some later historians did not look kindly on the Umayyads. They felt the Umayyad leaders acted more like kings than religious leaders. Even so, the Umayyads saw themselves as representatives of God, responsible for guiding the rules of Islam.

Today, some Arab nations view the Umayyad time as a golden age of Arab history. The Umayyad leaders used a white banner, which is now one of the main colors on many Arab flags.

Religious perspectives

Sunni

Some Muslims felt the Umayyads did not treat new converts well. They kept many non-Muslim tax collectors in their jobs, which made some people unhappy. Later, one Umayyad leader, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, reduced these taxes and is praised for his fairness and strong belief in Islam. He also treated all people more equally, even his own family.

Shias

Many followers of Shia Islam had a negative view of the Umayyads. They felt the Umayyad leaders were unfair and did not follow Islam properly. They believed the Umayyads fought against family members of Prophet Muhammad and treated them harshly.

Bahais

In some religious writings, the Umayyad leaders are described using symbols. One writing compares them to a dragon with seven heads and ten horns, representing the lands they controlled and the leaders of their dynasty.

List of caliphs

Main articles: Umayyad dynasty and Umayyad dynasty family tree