Aztecs

The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican civilization that lived in central Mexico from 1300 to 1521. They spoke the Nahuatl language and formed many city-states. The largest cities were Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan. These three cities joined together in 1427 to create the Aztec Empire. The empire grew powerful through trade and conquest.

Aztec society had nobility and commoners. They farmed maize and other crops. They built impressive cities with twin pyramids and had rich traditions in art, architecture, and religion. Their empire stretched from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans, reaching as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala.

In 1519, Spanish explorers led by Hernán Cortés arrived. They formed alliances with some city-states. This led to the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Spanish then built Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital and began ruling the region. Today, we learn about Aztec life from archaeological discoveries and writings by Spanish explorers.

Definitions

The words aztēcatl and aztēcah mean "people from Aztlán", a mythical place where many groups in central Mexico began their journeys. The Aztecs themselves did not use the term "Aztec" to describe themselves. Today, the word "Aztec" is often used to talk about the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, which is now where Mexico City stands.

Sometimes "Aztec" also includes people from allied city-states like Texcoco and Tlacopan. Together, these groups formed the Triple Alliance, which controlled much of the Valley of Mexico. The term "Aztec" can also refer to many different groups in central Mexico who shared similar history, culture, and language during the late postclassic period.

History

Main article: History of the Aztecs

We learn about the Aztecs from many places. Scientists study old buildings like temples to understand Aztec life. Writers from the Aztec people and Spanish explorers left important books. These books talk about Aztec leaders and history. Some books used pictures called codices, and others were written in Latin script by Aztecs or Spanish priests.

The Aztecs were not the first people in central Mexico. They moved there and joined many groups already living there. By 900 CE, people who spoke Nahuatl were strong in places like Tula and Tenayuca. In 1323, the Mexica people started the city of Tenochtitlan on a small island in Lake Texcoco. Their leader, Acamapichtli, became the first ruler in 1376.

The Aztecs grew stronger under leaders like Itzcoatl, who worked with Texcoco and Tlacopan. Later leaders, such as Motecuzoma I, made the empire bigger by winning battles. They fought to show their power and control nearby lands. Leaders like Axayacatl and Ahuitzotl led more battles and built big temples.

When Spanish explorers came in 1519, the Aztec ruler Moctezuma Xocoyotzin first welcomed them. Later, there were problems. After Moctezuma's death, leaders like Cuitláhuac and Cuauhtémoc tried to protect Tenochtitlan, but the city was taken by the Spanish in 1521. The Aztec way of life changed a lot after this, with new leaders and beliefs from the Spanish.

See also: Aztec codex and Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire § Sources for the conquest of Mesoamerica

Main article: Aztec Empire

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

The Cuauhtlatoque and Aztec polity post-conquest (1521–1565)

After the Spanish and their allies defeated the Aztec Triple Alliance in 1521, the leader of Tenochtitlan, Cuauhtémoc, was captured. The Spanish kept him to show they were in charge, but he did not have real power. This helped the Spanish control the area without giving power to their indigenous allies, who did not like the Aztecs.

The Spanish then put leaders called Cuāuhtlahtoāni in charge. The Spanish chose these leaders to make ruling simpler. They did not have the usual ceremonies to become leaders, so many people did not see them as real rulers. Later, the Spanish let the Aztec nobility choose leaders again, but these leaders still needed Spanish approval. This helped the Spanish stay in control while letting the Aztecs have some say in their leadership.

Social and political organization

Main articles: Social class in Aztec society, Aztec society, and Aztec slavery

Main article: Women in Aztec civilization

See also: Aztec Empire: Government

The Aztec society had different classes of people. The highest class was the nobility, called pīpiltin. They were born into their rank and had special rights, like wearing fancy clothes and owning land. The most powerful nobles were lords who had important jobs in government or the military. Nobles were a small part of the population.

The second class was the mācehualtin. They were mostly farmers but also included workers, artisans, and traders. Many of them worked with their hands to help the city grow. Some could move up in rank by being brave in battle.

Aztec families kept track of relatives on both their father's and mother's sides. Both sons and daughters could inherit property, so women could own land and manage their own money. Men usually worked outside the home as farmers, traders, or warriors, while women managed the household. Women could also work outside the home as merchants, doctors, priests, or midwives. Both men and women had important roles, and their work was valued for keeping the community strong.

The Aztec political system was based on city-states called altepetl. Each city-state had its own ruler, known as a tlatoani, who led a group of nobles and commoners. These city-states were the main way the Aztecs organized themselves and sometimes fought each other. Even after forming a larger group, these city-states stayed important for local matters.

The Aztec Empire was not one strong government but a group of different city-states. The empire grew by conquering other areas but usually let local rulers stay in power if they paid taxes. This way, the Aztecs controlled large areas without ruling every place directly. The city-states, or altepetl, were the key parts of both the empire and daily life.

Economy

The Aztecs built a strong economy based on farming and trade. They grew important crops like maize, beans, and squashes. They used special islands called chinampas to turn shallow lake water into rich gardens. These gardens produced food all year and helped feed many people.

Besides farming, many Aztecs worked as craftspeople. Women wove textiles, while men made pottery, tools from stone, and beautiful items like featherwork. They also traded goods in busy markets. Big markets like the one in Tlatelolco drew thousands of people every day. Special merchants called pochteca traveled far to bring back rare and valuable items. The Aztecs used things like cacao beans and lengths of cloth for money when buying and selling goods.

Urbanism

The Aztecs built amazing cities with special places for important events and buildings. Their big cities had many people and helped with things like religion and government. One of their most famous cities was Tenochtitlan, which is where modern-day Mexico City is today. Tenochtitlan had special buildings made from stone, and most homes were made from wood and grass roofs.

The middle of Tenochtitlan had a very important place for ceremonies and temples. One of the most famous buildings was the Templo Mayor, a big pyramid with two parts for different gods. The Aztecs thought this temple was very important for their beliefs. Other big cities nearby had similar layouts with central spaces and important pyramids too.

Religion

Main article: Aztec religion

The Aztecs believed in many gods. They saw sacred power in nature. Their main gods were Tlaloc, the rain god; Huitzilopochtli, the sun and war god; Quetzalcoatl, the wind and sky god; and Tezcatlipoca, the night and magic god. These gods were very important in Aztec life. People held many festivals and ceremonies to honor them.

Aztec life followed special calendars. These helped plan festivals and important events. Every day, people took part in rituals. These often included dancing and storytelling. These traditions were central to how the Aztecs understood the world.

Main article: List of Aztec gods and supernatural beings

Main article: Aztec mythology

Main article: Aztec calendar

Art and cultural production

The Aztecs loved art and good craftsmanship. They admired the Toltecs, people who lived in central Mexico before them. Aztec art included many things like writing, painting, singing, poetry, carving, making mosaics, creating ceramics, working with feathers, and shaping metals such as copper and gold. People who made these things were called tolteca.

The Aztecs did not write like the Maya, but they used pictures and sounds to write. They could show words and ideas using images, like drawing a mountain to mean “mountain.” This helped them write names and tell stories.

Music and poetry were important to the Aztecs. They had contests and shows during festivals. Poems often used clever words and comparisons. Many poems have survived, and some might be by famous Aztec leaders.

Aztecs made many kinds of ceramics, or clay dishes. Common types included orange-colored pots, red-slipped pots, and painted pots with many colors. These dishes were used for cooking, eating, and daily life.

Painted art was made on animal skins, cotton cloth, and special paper called amate. Artists used paints made from natural materials. Their work included pictures for books called codices. Some of these books describe Aztec calendars and gods.

Sculptures were carved from stone and wood. Large stone sculptures, like the famous Aztec Calendar Stone, were made to decorate temples and show important events. Smaller sculptures often showed gods and animals.

Featherwork was a special art form. Skilled workers called amanteca created beautiful designs using tiny pieces of feathers from many birds. These feather pieces were used to decorate clothes, shields, and other important objects. Feathers were traded from faraway places and were very precious to the Aztecs.

Colonial period, 1521–1821

Main article: Nahuas § Colonial Period

Further information: Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas

Mexico City was built where the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan once stood. After the city fell, Aztec warriors helped the Spanish in their campaigns across Mesoamerica. This allowed Aztec culture and the Nahuatl language to continue spreading during the early colonial times.

The Aztec ruling family still had influence in parts of Mexico City, though they were controlled by Spanish leaders. Other Aztec city-states became towns under Spanish rule, with local leaders managing their communities. These leaders often came from the old Aztec noble families. The Spanish set up large farms called encomiendas, where they used local people for labor.

Population decline

Main article: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

After Europeans arrived in Mexico, many native people became very sick from diseases they had never faced before. A sickness called smallpox spread through Tenochtitlan in 1520–1521 and helped the Spanish take the city. More diseases came later in 1545 and 1576.

Historians have different ideas about how many people lived in Mexico before the Europeans came. Some think there were only a few hundred thousand, while others believe there were many millions. No one knows the exact number, but it's clear that the population dropped a lot during the 1500s.

Social and political continuity and change

See also: Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas

Even after the Aztec empire ended, some Aztec nobles kept their important positions. Descendants of Moctezuma II married into Spanish noble families and even received special titles over time.

The Nahua people kept many of their traditions alive under Spanish rule. The Spanish created two separate groups: one for native people (República de indios) and another for Europeans, Africans, and mixed-race people (República de españoles). The Spanish allowed native leaders to help govern their communities, as long as they followed Spanish laws and became Christian.

The Spanish used the old Aztec city-states, called altepetl, as the main way to organize places. They called these city-states cabeceras, or "head towns," and set up town councils called cabildos to make decisions. As diseases spread and people moved, new communities formed, often because the Spanish wanted to make it easier to control and guide the native population.

Legacy

Aztec archaeological sites and artifacts are shown in museums. Many place names and words in Mexican Spanish come from the Aztec language, Nahuatl. Aztec symbols and stories are important parts of Mexico's national identity.

After Mexico became independent from Spain, the Aztecs were seen as symbols of Mexican pride. Their history and culture helped build a new national identity. Today, Aztec culture influences Mexican art, government symbols, and food. Many Mexican dishes, like corn, chili, and chocolate, have roots in Aztec cooking.