Buddhism

Buddhism is an Indian religion and philosophy. It is also called Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, which mean 'doctrines and disciplines.' It is based on teachings given by the Buddha, a śramaṇa (wandering ascetic) and religious teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE. People who follow Buddhism are called Buddhists. Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion. It has an estimated 320 million to 540 million followers, which is about 4.1% to 6.7% of the world's people. The religion began in the eastern Gangetic plain as a śramaṇa movement in the 5th century BCE. It slowly spread across much of Asia along the Silk Road. Buddhism has had a big influence on Asian culture and spirituality. It reached the West in the 19th century.

Tradition says the Buddha taught a path of cultivation that leads to awakening and freedom from dukkha, which means 'suffering' or 'unsatisfactoriness.' This freedom comes by reaching nirvana, which can be described as a 'blowing out' of strong feelings and desires. He called this path a Middle Way, because it avoids both extreme self-denial and too much pleasure. Buddhists often practise meditation and follow ethical precepts based on non-harming. Some well-known teachings are the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the idea of karma. Buddhists also take part in practices such as the Triple Gem and the cultivation of perfections (pāramitā).

The Buddhist canon is very large. It includes many philosophical traditions and collections of texts written in languages such as Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, and Chinese. Buddhist schools differ in how they understand the paths to liberation, how much importance they give to different Buddhist texts, and in their specific teachings and practices. Scholars generally recognise two major branches that still exist today. Theravāda means 'School of the Elders,' and Mahāyāna means 'Great Vehicle.' Theravada focuses on reaching nirvāṇa as a way to move beyond the individual self and end the cycle of death and rebirth. Mahayana focuses on the Bodhisattva ideal, in which a person works for the freedom of all living beings. Vajrayāna, which means 'Indestructible Vehicle,' includes tantric techniques. It may be seen as a separate branch or as part of Mahāyāna.

The Mahāyāna branch is the largest. It includes traditions such as Tiantai, Chan, Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren, and Tendai. It is mostly practised in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Theravada is the second-largest branch. It is followed mainly in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayāna, is practised in the Himalayan states, as well as in Mongolia, Russian Kalmykia, and Tuva. Japanese Shingon also keeps the Vajrayana tradition that was passed on to China. In the past, Buddhism was widely practised in the Indian subcontinent before declining there, until the early 2nd millennium. It also had a presence in other parts of Asia, including Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

Etymology

The words Buddhadharma and Bauddhadharma come from Sanskrit. They mean "doctrine of the Enlightened One" and "doctrine of Buddhists." The word Dharmavinaya also comes from Sanskrit and means "doctrines and disciplines."

The Buddha ("the Awakened One") was a Śramaṇa who lived in South Asia a long time ago, around the 6th or 5th century BCE. In English, followers are called Buddhists. In ancient India, they called themselves Sakyans or Sakyabhiksu. Scholar Donald S. Lopez says they also used the term Bauddha. Scholar Richard Cohen says only outsiders used that word for Buddhists.

The Buddha

Main article: The Buddha

Many Early Buddhist Texts tell the story of the Buddha's life, but they do not always agree. It is hard to be sure of his social background. Scholars think he probably lived around the 5th century BCE, though his exact dates are not known.

The Buddha was born in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal. He grew up in Kapilavastu, a town on the Ganges Plain near the border between Nepal and India today. He spent his life in what is now Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Some hagiographic legends say his father was a king named Suddhodana and his mother was Queen Maya. Scholars such as Richard Gombrich think this may not be true. The evidence suggests he came from the Shakya people, who were led by a small oligarchy or republic-like council. Early texts say the Buddha described himself as a kshatriya, which means a member of the warrior class. Gombrich points out that little is known about his father, so there is no proof the Buddha knew this word. (Mahavira, whose teachings helped start Jainism, was also said by his early followers to be a kshatriya.)

Early texts such as the MN 26 and its Chinese version at MĀ 204 say Gautama felt troubled by the dukkha, or suffering, of life. He also saw how life and death kept repeating through rebirth. He wanted to find freedom from suffering, which he called "nirvana." At first he studied with two meditation teachers, Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Ramaputta, but their teachings did not help him reach his goal. Next he tried very hard asceticism, including fasting and breath control, but this also did not work. Finally he practised dhyana, sitting in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree that is now called the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya. There he reached "Awakening," known as Bodhi. According to texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta, he then understood karma and his past lives. He let go of the mental troubles (asavas), ended suffering, and ended rebirth in saṃsāra. He taught that the Middle Way was the right path to end suffering.

As an awakened Buddha, he gathered followers and started a Sangha, which is a community of monks. He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma. He died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, India, and reached "final nirvana." His followers spread his teachings. In the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, these teachings grew into different Buddhist schools of thought, each with its own collection of texts. Over time they became many traditions. The best known and most widespread today are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

Worldview

Main article: Glossary of Buddhism

The word "Buddhism" comes from the West. It is often used to translate the Dharma of the Buddha. Donald S. Lopez Jr. says this translation is "rather rough." The Four Noble Truths, or the truths of the Noble Ones, describe the basic idea of Buddhism. Everything changes, yet people crave and cling to things that do not last. This makes life feel unsatisfying, which is called dukkha. It keeps people caught in saṃsāra, a cycle of repeated rebirth. A way out of this cycle, to nirvana, is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path.

Buddhists believe that nothing lasts forever and that there is no permanent self. Their actions, called karma, affect future lives. Nirvana is the goal of ending the cycle of rebirth. All forms of Buddhism take refuge in the "three jewels." These are the Buddha, the Dharma (the Buddha's teaching), and the Sangha (the community of monks and nuns, and others who have reached awakening).

Paths to liberation

Main article: Buddhist paths to liberation

Buddhism has many paths to spiritual awakening (bodhi). The Bodhipakkhiyādhammā are seven lists of qualities that help people reach awakening, and many of them overlap. The best-known path in the West is the Noble Eightfold Path.

Buddhist traditions share some basic practices. These are sila (ethics), samadhi (meditation), and prajña (wisdom), which are called the three trainings. Having a kind and caring attitude toward every living being is also important. Some traditions value devotion. Tibetan traditions use visualisations of deities and mandalas. Traditions differ in how much they value studying texts. A key idea is the Middle Way, which was part of the Buddha's first sermon. It is a path between two extremes: living in harsh self-denial and chasing pleasures of the senses.

In the Early Buddhist Texts, the path is often taught as a "graduated talk," a step-by-step training laid out by the Buddha. The best-known path is the Noble Eightfold Path. It appears in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, a talk about turning the Dharma wheel. The path has eight connected parts. When they are developed together, they lead to the end of dukkha, or suffering. It is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths. The path is grouped into three basic divisions, shown below.

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

Common practices

Main article: Refuge (Buddhism)

Main articles: Buddhist devotion, Buddhist liturgy, and Pūjā (Buddhism)

Main article: Buddhist ethics

Main article: Vinaya

Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Samadhi, Samatha, and Rupajhana

Main article: Buddhist vegetarianism

In the early teachings, the first step on the path is hearing the Dharma, the teachings of the Buddha. This is said to lead to faith in those teachings. Most Buddhist schools also begin with the "Three Refuges," also called the Three Jewels, as the base of their religious practice. Faith and devotion are important too. People honor the Buddha by offering flowers, incense, lamps, food, and water. They also bow and go on pilgrimage. Buddhist chanting is common in all Buddhist traditions. It helps people remember the teachings. Many people use malas, or rosaries, to count their repetitions.

Buddhist ethics are built on good moral qualities and the five precepts. The precepts are a basic training for all Buddhists. They include avoiding harm to living beings, not taking what is not given, avoiding false speech, and staying away from alcohol or drugs that cloud the mind. Monks and nuns follow the Vinaya, a code of conduct for their community. Other practices include self-control, letting go of things, mindfulness, and meditation, which aims for calm and insight. The Buddha spoke against killing animals. Early texts allow monks to eat meat that is offered to them. Whether Buddhists should be vegetarian is still debated today.

Texts

Main article: Buddhist texts

Like other Indian religions, Buddhism began as an oral tradition long ago. The Buddha's words and early teachings were passed from person to person by memory. People used chanting and other mnemonic methods to remember them. The earliest oral texts were in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called Prakrits, such as Pali. The first Buddhist texts were probably written down in Sri Lanka, about 400 years after the Buddha died. They were part of the Tripitakas. Many later versions claimed to contain the Buddha's words. People wrote texts on palm-leaf manuscripts, birch bark, painted scrolls, temple walls, and later on paper. Unlike the Bible in Christianity or the Quran in Islam, Buddhist groups do not agree on which writings are holy. Each group has its own collection. The Chinese Buddhist canon has 2,184 texts in 55 volumes. The Tibetan canon has 1,108 texts, plus 3,461 more written by Indian scholars. In 1900, over 40,000 manuscripts were found in one cave in China at Dunhuang.

The oldest material is called the Early Buddhist Texts. It includes the first four Pali Nikayas and the Chinese Āgamas. It also includes some pieces written in Sanskrit, Khotanese, Tibetan, and Gāndhārī. Early groups later made their own collections, called Tripiṭakas (Triple Baskets). These were often divided into three parts. The Vinaya Pitaka covers monastic rule. The Sutta Pitaka holds Buddhist talks. The Abhidhamma Pitaka explains the teachings. The Pali Canon of the Theravada school is the only complete collection of Buddhist texts in an Indic language that still exists today. Later, Mahāyāna Buddhists saw the Mahayana sutras as original teachings of the Buddha. These sutras were usually given more authority than the older texts. Those older texts were called Śrāvakayāna or Hinayana. Mahāyāna also has many philosophical texts. One example is the Mūlamadhyamika-karikā by Nagarjuna, which is the foundation of the Madhyamika school. During the Gupta Empire, new sacred writings called the Tantras began to develop. These texts borrowed gods and practices from other Indian traditions, including Śaiva and Pancharatra beliefs. They used chants called mantras, meditation on the subtle body, and worship of fierce deities.

History

History of Buddhism

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Buddhism.

Buddhism began in Iron Age India, about 2,500 years ago. This was a time of big changes, called the "Second urbanisation". Towns and trade grew, and the Upanishads were written. Buddhism grew out of the Śramaṇa movements. These were different from the historical Vedic religion, and they did not follow the Vedas and Upanishads. Early Buddhism did not have any gods. After the Buddha died, his teachings were shared at early meetings. Later, the Sangha split apart, and several schools formed.

For a long time, Buddhism spread slowly across India. Then the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) openly supported it. Because of his help, more stūpas and temples were built. Buddhism spread across the Maurya Empire and to the island of Sri Lanka.

Later, Buddhism travelled along the Silk Road. The Kushan Empire helped it spread. The Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") movement grew, and the great learning centre of Nalanda became well known. A form of Buddhism called Vajrayana became popular under the Guptas and Palas. Buddhism became weaker in India over time. By the 1200s, it had almost disappeared from India. From China, Buddhism reached Korea, Japan and Vietnam. The Theravada school came to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE. Later, it spread to Southeast Asia.

Schools and traditions

Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Timeline of Buddhism § Common Era

Buddhists are usually sorted into two groups: Theravāda and Mahāyāna. This is the most common way to sort them in English. Some scholars use a different way with three groups: Theravāda (also called "Southern Buddhism" or "South Asian Buddhism"), East Asian Buddhism (or "Eastern Buddhism"), and Indo-Tibetan Buddhism (or "Northern Buddhism").

Theravāda is seen as the oldest tradition. It accepts only the Pali Canon as its main authority. Mahāyāna also respects the Canon, but it follows later writings too. Vajrayāna is close to Mahāyāna, includes Tantra, and is the newest of the three.

Mahāyāna followers sometimes use the word Hinayana, which means "lesser vehicle," for the early schools that Theravāda grew from. Many people think this word is unkind, so other names, like Śrāvakayāna, are used instead.

Theravāda and Mahāyāna both accept the Buddha Sakyamuni as their founder. Both accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three Jewels, the Three marks of existence, and the Bodhipakṣadharmas.

Mahāyāna also honors other Buddhas, such as Amitabha and Vairocana. Many Mahāyāna followers also follow the bodhisattva path. Theravāda teaches arhatship as its goal. It sees the bodhisattva path as a long, hard road that only a few people take. Mahāyāna also accepts the buddhavacana of its own sutras, but Theravāda does not.

Monasteries and temples

Main article: Buddhist architecture

Buddhist communities often have monasteries (Sanskrit: viharas) and temples. At first, Buddhist monks wandered and did not stay in one place for long. During the three-month rainy season (vassa), they gathered in one place to practise together, then moved on again. Some of the earliest monasteries were in groves or woods, such as Jetavana and Sarnath's Deer Park. Over time, the wandering community slowly began to live in more settled cenobitic communities.

Buddhist buildings come in many forms. Early Indian Buddhist sites included monasteries, cave complexes such as the Ajanta Caves, stupas (mounds that held relics), and temples such as the Mahabodhi Temple. In Southeast Asia, most Buddhist sites are built around wats. East Asian sites include halls, temples, lecture halls, bell towers and pagodas. In Japanese Buddhist temples, these buildings are usually grouped together in an area called the garan. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, communities are usually housed in gompas.

In the modern era

Buddhism faced many challenges in the modern era. Some Buddhist countries were ruled by Christian countries, and some modern governments treated the religion unfairly. New science also questioned some of its basic ideas. One response, called Buddhist modernism, presented Buddhism as a religion that matches science and reason. In East Asia, Buddhism was affected by wars such as the Taiping rebellion and World War II. Buddhist institutions were damaged during the Cultural Revolution, but the religion has grown again in China since 1977. In Central Asia, strict Communist rule hurt Buddhist institutions in Tibet and Mongolia. The situation has improved somewhat since the 1980s and 1990s. In Afghanistan and Pakistan, some historic Buddhist monuments have been destroyed.

Buddhism began to spread to the West in the 19th century, when Western scholars started to study it. The 1893 World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Illinois, was an important event in this spread. Many new Buddhist groups grew in Western countries during the 20th century. In India, B.R. Ambedkar started the Navayana tradition, whose name means "new vehicle." Buddhism is the state religion in countries such as Cambodia and Bhutan, where the government supports it.

Cultural influence

Main article: Culture of Buddhism

Buddhism has had a deep influence on many cultures, especially in Asia. Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist art, Buddhist architecture, Buddhist cuisine and Buddhist festivals are still important parts of the Culture of Asia. This is especially true in East Asia and the Sinosphere, and also in Southeast Asia and the Indosphere. Litian Fang says that Buddhism has "permeated a wide range of fields, such as politics, ethics, philosophy, literature, art and customs" in these regions. Buddhist ideas helped shape modern Hinduism and other Asian religions, like Taoism and Confucianism. Buddhist thinkers such as Dignaga and Dharmakirti were very influential in Indian logic and epistemology. Buddhist schools like Nalanda and Vikramashila taught subjects such as grammar, astronomy and astrology, and medicine. They also welcomed students from other parts of Asia.

In the Western world, Buddhism has had a strong influence on modern New Age spirituality and other alternative spiritualities. This started with 20th-century Theosophists, like Helena Blavatsky, who were some of the first Westerners to take Buddhism seriously as a spiritual tradition. More recently, Buddhist meditation has influenced modern psychology. One example is Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), along with other similar mindfulness-based methods. Buddhism's influence on psychology can also be seen in some forms of modern psychoanalysis. The link to Buddhism on psychology is another way this influence shows up.

Demographics

See also: Buddhism by country

About 324 million people followed Buddhism in 2020. That is 4.1% of the world's population. From 2010 to 2020, Buddhism was the only major religion that got smaller. It dropped from about 343 million people to 324 million. This is linked to an older population, fewer babies being born, and people raised as Buddhists who no longer follow the religion as adults.

Thailand has the most Buddhists, about 64 million. That is 94.4% of its people. China is second, with about 42 million. Most Buddhists follow Chinese schools of Mahayana, the largest branch. It is followed across East Asia. Theravada is the second-largest branch. It is mostly followed in Mainland Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Buddhism is the main religion in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Laos, Mongolia, Japan, Singapore and Vietnam.