Celts

The Celts were a group of ancient peoples in Europe. They lived in many parts of Europe, including France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and even as far east as Turkey. The Celts included groups such as the Gauls in France, the Celtiberians in Spain, and the Britons and Gaels in Britain and Ireland.

We know about the Celts from old writings by Greek and Roman writers. We also know from stories that survived in Ireland and Wales. They had special ways of life, including a religion led by people called druids. The Celts sometimes fought with the Romans, who later took over most of their lands.

Even after the Romans changed many Celtic areas, people in places like Ireland, Wales, and Brittany kept their languages and traditions alive. Today, some people still speak Celtic languages, and many are interested in learning more about Celtic history and culture.

Names and terminology

Main article: Names of the Celts

The name 'Celts' was first used by ancient Greek writers to describe people living near what is now Marseille in France. Later writers also used this name for groups in other parts of Europe. The meaning of the word 'Celts' is not fully known.

In recent times, the word 'Celtic' began being used to talk about the languages and cultures of places like Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man. These areas still speak related languages, which is why they are called Celtic today. Some parts of Europe also claim Celtic heritage.

Origins

Main articles: Pre-Celtic and Celticization

The Celtic languages are a group of Indo-European languages. By around 400 BC, the Celts had split into several language groups and spread across western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland, and Britain. These languages developed into Celtiberian, Goidelic, and Brittonic branches.

For much of the 20th century, many believed the Celts came from the Urnfield culture in central Europe around 1000 BC. This culture spread westward and southward. The Urnfield culture was strong in central Europe during the late Bronze Age. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture around 800 to 500 BC. The Hallstatt culture later evolved into the La Tène culture around 450 BC, which is linked to Celtic art.

In 1846, a scientist named Johann Georg Ramsauer found an old grave field at Hallstatt, Austria. Because these graves dated to about the same time the Celts were mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus, Ramsauer thought they were Celtic. Similar sites were found across a wide area, and these were called the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, an archaeological site called La Tène was found in Switzerland. The many objects there had a unique style. Items of this 'La Tène style' were found in places where Celts lived. So, by the 1870s, scholars began to see La Tène finds as linked to the Celts. This network was later taken over by the Roman Empire, but bits of La Tène style survived in Gallo-Roman artifacts. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style lasted longer.

The Urnfield-Hallstatt idea was questioned more in the late 20th century. This was because the oldest known Celtic language writings were from the 6th century BC in Lepontic and the 2nd century BC in Celtiberian. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia. The theory also relied on old writings from Greco-Roman authors like Histories by Herodotus. Stephen Oppenheimer suggests Herodotus may have thought the Danube started near the Pyrenees. The theory also used many inscriptions with Celtic names from the later Roman times in Noricum.

Later in the 20th century, some scholars stopped supporting the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory. 'Celtic' started to mean mainly 'people who spoke Celtic languages'. A new idea suggested Celtic languages began earlier along the Atlantic coast, including Britain, Ireland, Armorica, and Iberia. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick thought "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might go back to the Bell Beaker culture in the Copper and Bronze Age. Martín Almagro Gorbea in 2001 also suggested Celtic began in the 3rd millennium BC.

John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It says the early Celtic language started along the Atlantic coast and was the common language of the Atlantic Bronze Age network, later spreading inland and east. Cunliffe recently suggests this language began even earlier, around 3000 BC. His idea is based on language studies, old place names that look Celtic, and the belief that the Tartessian language was Celtic.

Celtic expert Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) says that today, 'Celt' is mainly a language label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he thinks the early Celtic language did not start in central Europe or the Atlantic, but between them. He believes it "became a separate Indo-European language around the second millennium BC, probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... and then spread in different directions at different speeds in the first millennium BC".

Main article: Proto-Celtic language

Further information: Celtic toponymy

The early Celtic language is usually placed in the Late Bronze Age. The oldest Celtic language writings are the Lepontic inscriptions from Cisalpine Gaul in Northern Italy, older than the La Tène period. Other early writings, from the early La Tène time in Massilia, are in Gaulish, written in the Greek alphabet until the Romans took over. Celtiberian writings, using their own Iberian letters, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic only shows up around 400 AD, in Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions.

Besides writings, place names are an important source for learning about early Celtic times.

See also: Corded Ware culture § Genetic studies

Studies by Arnaiz-Villena and others in 2017 showed that some Celtic-related groups along the European Atlantic coast shared a common HLA system.

Other genetic studies do not find strong genetic links between these groups beyond them all being West Europeans. Early European Farmers settled Britain and Northern Europe in the Neolithic, but recent genetics show that between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA changed due to people from the European Steppe arriving. Modern genetic studies of British and Irish people, along with Iron Age samples, show they are very similar to other North Europeans.

Further information: Iron Age Europe

By the late 1800s, some began to see the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures not just as time periods but as groups of people who shared the same race and language. In the early 1900s, Gordon Childe believed these cultures could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms. As the 20th century went on, the idea that La Tène culture was linked to Celts and the Celtic language became stronger.

In many areas of study, the Celts were seen as a Central European Iron Age group, linked to Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. But finds from Hallstatt and La Tène were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland, and Galatia. It is also hard to say the Iberian Celts came from the Urnfield culture.

The La Tène culture grew and thrived during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. It developed from the Hallstatt culture without a clear break, influenced by the Mediterranean world, especially from the Greeks and later Etruscan civilisations. Settlements moved around the 4th century. The western La Tène culture matches historic Celtic Gaul. It is hard to say if all of La Tène culture was one Celtic people; archaeologists say language and objects do not always match.

The Greek writer Ephorus of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the 4th century BC, thought the Celts came from islands near the Rhine. Polybius wrote a history of Rome around 150 BC, describing the Gauls of Italy and their fights with Rome. Pausanias in the 2nd century AD said the Gauls, "originally called Celts", "live in the farthest part of Europe on the coast of a huge ocean". Posidonius wrote about the southern Gauls around 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers like Strabo used it. Strabo wrote in the early 1st century AD about Britain and Gaul, as well as Hispania, Italy, and Galatia. Caesar wrote a lot about his Gallic Wars from 58–51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his history from the 1st century.

Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both think the heartland of the people they call Celts was in southern Gaul. Diodorus says the Gauls were north of the Celts, but the Romans called both Gauls (linguistically, the Gauls were Celts). Before Hallstatt and La Tène discoveries, people often thought the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, as shown in the Encyclopædia Britannica from 1813.

Distribution

Continental

Gaul

The Romans called the Celts living in what is now France "Gauls." Their lands also included areas of the Low Countries, the Alps, and northern Italy. Julius Caesar wrote about these Gauls in the 1st century BC.

Eastern Gaul became a center of a culture known as La Tène. Later, large towns developed there, and the Gauls started using coins. Texts written in Greek letters from southern Gaul date back to the 2nd century BC.

Greek traders founded the city of Massalia around 600 BC, trading items up the Rhône River. Trade slowed after 500 BC but continued over the Alps to Italy. The Romans arrived in the Rhône valley in the 2nd century BC and gradually took control. By 58 BC, Julius Caesar began conquering Gaul.

After these wars, the area became part of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. Gaulish was spoken across most of modern France.

Iberia

Modern studies show Celtic influence in Spain and Portugal, especially in central, western, and northern regions.

Groups included the Celtiberians in the Upper-Douro region. The Vetton group produced sculptures, and the Vaccean group showed influences. The Castro Culture in northwest Iberia had unique features. The Astures and Cantabri resisted Roman rule until the Cantabrian Wars ended in 19 BC. Celts also lived in southwest Iberia.

Germany, Alps and Italy

By the late Bronze Age, cultures linked to the Celts covered central Europe. In Italy, early Celtic presence began, and La Tène culture spread widely. Lepontic, the oldest known Celtic language, was spoken in Switzerland and northern Italy.

In 391 BC, Celts crossed the Alps and settled in areas of Italy, founding cities like Milan. Rome was sacked by the Senones in 390 BC. Roman conquest ended Celtic dominance in Italy by 192 BC.

Expansion east and south

Celts traveled down the Danube River, with the Scordisci tribe establishing their capital at Singidunum (modern Belgrade). Dense populations lived in the Tisza valley of modern Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine. Expansion into Romania was blocked.

The Serdi tribe lived around Serdika (modern Sofia) in Thrace. They ruled Thrace for over a century and settled in Anatolia. The Boii tribe’s name lives on in Bohemia, Bologna, and possibly Bavaria. Celtic artifacts have been found in Poland and Slovakia.

Insular

Today’s Celtic languages come from those spoken in Iron Age Britain and Ireland. By the 1st century AD, Insular Celts included the Celtic Britons, Gaels, and Picts.

Insular Celts practiced Ancient Celtic religion, led by druids. After Roman rule ended in Britain, Anglo-Saxon settlers arrived in the east and south, while Gaelic settlers came to the west. Brittonic speakers became Welsh, Cornish, Bretons, and Cumbrians, while Gaelic speakers became Irish, Scots, and Manx.

Romanisation

Main articles: Gallo-Roman culture and Romano-British culture

When Caesar led the Romans, they took over the Celtic lands known as Gaul. Later, parts of Britain also came under Roman control. The Romans set up local governments that followed the old Celtic tribal borders. People from these areas helped run things.

People living under Roman rule began to use many Roman ways. Celtic art already mixed some Roman styles, and artworks from that time show both Roman ideas and old Celtic traditions.

Roman control over Gaul and parts of Britain mixed Roman and Celtic cultures. For the Celts on the mainland, this led to speaking Vulgar Latin instead of their old languages, but the Celts on islands kept their languages.

Gaul also influenced Rome, especially with horses. The Romans used Celtic horsemen in their army and took up the Celtic sword called the spatha. They also honored Epona, the Celtic goddess of horses.

Society

The Celts were a group of people in Europe and Anatolia who shared similar languages and culture. They included groups like the Gauls, Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Britons, Picts, Gaels, Boii, and Galatians.

Celtic societies were often led by kings, but sometimes leaders were chosen by groups of people. They were usually split into three main classes: warriors, a learned group including druids, poets, and lawyers, and everyone else. Family life and settlement patterns varied widely. Some lived in small, scattered groups, while others built towns. The Celts had a rich tradition of oral storytelling and beautiful metalwork. Their art included intricate designs and patterns. Some Celtic groups used chariots in battle long after other cultures stopped using them.

Warfare and weapons

Main articles: Celtic warfare and Celtic sword

Fighting between groups was common for the Celts. They sometimes fought to control land, bother others, or get wealth.

The Celts were known for their fighting style. They used long swords for cutting, along with spears and throwing weapons called javelins. Some Celts fought without armor, which looked scary to their enemies.

The Celts believed the head held a person's spirit. After battles, they sometimes took enemy heads and kept them to show respect or strength. This is shown in old stories and carvings.

Religion and mythology

Ancient Celtic religion

Main articles: Ancient Celtic religion, Celtic mythology, and Proto-Celtic religion

The Celts believed in many gods and an afterlife. Their religion changed in different places and times but shared some basic ideas. We learn about their beliefs from old writings, later stories, and archaeological finds.

Many gods and goddesses were important to the Celts. Some were known only in certain areas, while others were famous across many lands. The Celts believed that nature had spirits everywhere. They had gods for the sky, the earth, war, skills, healing, and more. Priests called druids led religious ceremonies and also helped with judging and teaching.

The Celts held ceremonies in special natural places like groves of trees. They also built temples and made gifts to their gods, often putting valuable items in water or special places.

Insular Celtic mythology

Most stories about Celtic gods and heroes come from Ireland and Wales. These stories were written down later by Christian writers. In Irish tales, the Tuatha Dé Danann are the main gods, and they fought against the Fomóire. The stories often show a balance between male and female powers, with gods and goddesses representing different parts of life and nature.

Heroes in these stories sometimes travel to a magical world called the Otherworld. The Celts celebrated special festivals during the year, marking the seasons.

Roman influence

Further information: Gallo-Roman culture

When the Romans came to live among the Celts, many things changed. The druids lost much of their power, and new gods appeared that mixed Roman and Celtic ideas. The Romans also introduced stone monuments to honor the gods, while the Celts had mostly used wooden ones before.

Celtic Christianity

Main article: Celtic Christianity

In areas not ruled by Rome, like Ireland and Scotland, people slowly moved from their old ways to Christianity. Ireland helped spread Christianity to other places. Celtic Christianity had some special ways of doing things that were different from other Christian groups, but these differences were mostly settled later on.

Genetics

See also: Bell Beaker culture § Genetics, Hallstatt culture § Genetics, La Tène culture § Genetics, Gauls § Genetics, Celtic Britons § Genetics, Celtiberians § Genetics, and Italic peoples § Genetics

Genetic studies show that people from the Iron Age in Celtic areas were related to people from the Bell Beaker culture in Western Europe. Both groups had ancestry from Western Steppe Herders, who came from the Pontic–Caspian steppe. This ancestry is strongest in Northwest Europe. Most of these ancient people had a certain type of paternal DNA called haplogroup R-M269, and their maternal DNA often showed types H and U. These DNA types are linked to the steppe ancestry. When the Celts moved to places like Iberia, the local people began to show more ancestry from north-central European groups. There was mixing among Celtic groups in Western Europe during the Iron Age. The Gauls in southern France were similar to the Celtiberians, while the Gauls in northern France were more like people from Great Britain and Sweden. Today, people in Western Europe who speak Celtic languages are very similar to the people who lived there during the Iron Age.