George Washington

George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799) was a Founding Father and the first president of the United States. He served from 1789 to 1797. As leader of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War against the British Empire. He is often called the Father of His Country because he helped bring about American independence.

Born in the Colony of Virginia, Washington led the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War from 1754 to 1763. Later, he was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, where he spoke against how the British Crown was treating the American colonists unfairly. When the American Revolutionary War against Britain began in 1775, Washington was chosen as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. He had to lead a force that was poorly organized and poorly equipped against well-trained British soldiers.

Washington and his army won an early victory at the Siege of Boston in March 1776. In November, they had to retreat from New York City. He crossed the Delaware River and won the battles of Trenton in late 1776 and of Princeton in early 1777. Later that year, he lost the battles of Brandywine and Germantown. As the war went on, he faced criticism of how he led, low morale among his troops, and not enough supplies. In the end, Washington led a combined French and American army to an important victory over the British at Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 saw Britain accept the independence of the United States. Washington then served as president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which wrote the current Constitution of the United States.

The Electoral College unanimously chose Washington as the first U.S. president in the 1788–89 United States presidential election and the 1792 United States presidential election. He built a strong national government with good finances. He stayed fair while a strong rivalry grew in his cabinet between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he chose a policy of neutrality while supporting the Jay Treaty with Britain. Washington set lasting examples for the office of president, including republicanism, a peaceful transfer of power, the use of the title "Mr. President", and the two-term tradition.

His 1796 farewell address became a famous statement on republicanism. In it, Washington wrote about how important national unity was, and about the dangers that regionalism, partisanship, and foreign influence could bring. Washington grew tobacco and wheat as a planter at Mount Vernon. He owned many slaves. Near the end of his life, he began to oppose slavery, and his will provided for the eventual manumission (freeing) of his slaves. Washington's image is an icon of American culture, and he has been extensively memorialized. Places such as the national capital and the State of Washington are named after him. In both popular and scholarly polls, he is consistently considered one of the greatest presidents in American history.

Early life (1732–1752)

Further information: Washington family and Surveying career of George Washington

George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia. He was the first of six children. His parents were Augustine and Mary Ball Washington. His father was a justice of the peace and was well known in his community. Washington did not feel close to his father, and he rarely spoke of him later. He also had a hard time getting along with his mother. He was very close to his older half-brother Lawrence. The family moved to Little Hunting Creek in 1735. In 1738, they settled at Ferry Farm, near Fredericksburg, Virginia. After his father died in 1743, Lawrence renamed Little Hunting Creek Mount Vernon. Washington did not go to the same kind of school as his older half-brothers. They had attended Appleby Grammar School in England. Instead, Washington went to the Lower Church School in Hartfield. There he learned mathematics and land surveying. He became a skilled draftsman and mapmaker. As a teenager, he copied over one hundred rules for polite behavior. They were called The Rules of Civility, and he copied them from an English translation of a French guidebook. His biographer Ron Chernow later said his writing had "considerable force" and "precision."

Washington often visited Belvoir, the plantation of William Fairfax, and Mount Vernon. Fairfax became his mentor and a kind of second father to him. In 1748, Washington spent a month surveying Fairfax's land in the Shenandoah Valley. The next year, he received a surveyor's license from the College of William & Mary. He had not completed the usual apprenticeship, but Thomas Fairfax still made him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia. Washington took his oath of office on July 20, 1749, and he resigned in 1750. In 1751, he traveled to Barbados with Lawrence. Lawrence hoped the warm climate would help cure his tuberculosis. During the trip, Washington caught smallpox, which left his face slightly scarred. Lawrence died in 1752. Washington then leased Mount Vernon from Lawrence's widow, Ann.

Colonial military career (1752–1758)

Lawrence Washington worked as adjutant general of the Virginia militia. This inspired George to seek a militia commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie, made him a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French both wanted control of the Ohio River Valley. The British built forts along the river, and the French built forts between the river and Lake Erie. In 1753, Dinwiddie sent Washington as a special envoy. His job was to tell the French to leave land the British claimed. He was also asked to make peace with the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy and to learn about French forces. Washington met the Haudenosaunee leader Tanacharison at Logstown. Washington said Tanacharison gave him the name Conotocaurius, which meant "devourer of villages." This name had earlier been given to his great-grandfather John Washington by the Susquehannock. The French guided Washington to Fort Le Boeuf. There he gave the British demand to the French commander Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. The French refused to leave. Still, Washington finished the hard winter mission, and his report was published in Virginia and London.

French and Indian War

In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel. He became second-in-command of the Virginia Regiment, which had about 300 soldiers. He was ordered to confront the French at the Forks of the Ohio, where the French were building Fort Duquesne. Washington set up a defensive position at Great Meadows. Then he carried out an ambush on May 28, 1754. The French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, who was carrying a message for the British, was among those killed. Washington then retreated to Fort Necessity. On July 3, about 900 French soldiers attacked Fort Necessity. The ensuing battle ended with Washington surrendering. He signed a document that wrongly described Jumonville's death as "assassinating." Later, he blamed the translator for this mistake. The Jumonville affair started the French and Indian War. In 1755, Washington joined General Edward Braddock on a British expedition. Their goal was to drive the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country. Braddock split the army into a main group and a smaller "flying column." Washington was very ill with dysentery, so he joined later. The French and their allies ambushed the divided army at the Battle of the Monongahela. Braddock was killed in this battle. Under Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington rallied the survivors. He formed a rear guard so the army could retreat. Later, Washington had a disagreement over seniority with Captain John Dagworthy at Fort Cumberland. He asked for a royal commission from Commander-in-Chief William Shirley, and then from Lord Loudoun, who refused him. In 1758, the Virginia Regiment joined the Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. General John Forbes gave Washington a brevet rank of brigadier general. However, the French had already left the fort. A friendly fire incident hurt many soldiers. Washington resigned soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon. During these years, he gained leadership skills and learned about British military tactics. He remained unhappy, though, that the British did not give him a royal commission.

Marriage, civilian and political life (1759–1775)

On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis, a 27-year-old widow. Her first husband, Daniel Parke Custis, had been a wealthy plantation owner. Martha was smart, kind, and good at running a large estate, and the couple had a happy marriage. They lived at Mount Vernon, where Washington grew tobacco and wheat. Through the marriage, he gained control of Martha's one-third dower share of the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate. He also managed the rest of it for her children. This made him one of the wealthiest men in Virginia. Later, he expanded Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha). He also started flour milling and hemp farming. His debts grew after he spent a lot of money on goods from England. In 1764, he owed £1,800. He paid off those debts after his stepdaughter Patsy died at Mount Vernon in 1773. She had epileptic attacks, and she left him part of her estate. In 1758, Washington was elected to represent Frederick County in the Virginia House of Burgesses for seven years. In the 1760s, he became more active in politics. He began to criticize Britain's mercantilist policies and the taxes that British Parliament placed on the colonies without proper representation. He was glad when the Stamp Act 1765 was repealed. He also urged Virginians to stop buying British goods in response to the Townshend Acts.

Washington was upset by the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which banned settlement west of the Allegheny Mountains. He was also unhappy with British control over land speculation, even though he took part in it himself. After colonists took part in the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774. Washington saw these laws as "an invasion of our rights and privileges." That July, he and George Mason wrote a list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee. The list included a call to end the Atlantic slave trade. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention. He was chosen as a delegate to the First Continental Congress. As tensions grew, he helped train militias in Virginia. He also worked to enforce the Continental Association, a boycott of British goods set up by the Congress.

Commander in chief of the army (1775–1783)

Further information: Military career of George Washington

When the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, Washington left his home at Mount Vernon to join the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In June, Congress formed the Continental Army and chose Washington to lead it. They picked him mainly because of his military experience. He did not ask to be paid. Over the next few years, Washington led the Patriot forces in many battles. In March 1776, he forced the British to leave Boston. In December 1776, he won a surprise attack at Trenton. He also got through a hard winter at Valley Forge. In 1781, his army won at Yorktown, and the British agreed to surrender. Later, the Treaty of Paris settled the peace and recognized American independence. In December 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief and gave power back to Congress.

Main article: Siege of Boston

Main article: New York and New Jersey Campaign

Main article: Battle of Long Island

Main article: Philadelphia campaign

Main articles: Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Germantown, and Battles of Saratoga

Main articles: Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth

Main articles: Culper Ring and Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–1779

Main articles: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War and Siege of Yorktown

Early republic (1783–1789)

Further information: Confederation Period and Articles of Confederation

Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States)

Main article: 1788–1789 United States presidential election

After eight and a half years of war, Washington was eager to go home. He arrived at Mount Vernon on Christmas Eve, just ten days after leaving the army. Professor John E. Ferling wrote that he was happy to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life." Many visitors came to see him. Washington took up his interest in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac Canal projects, though neither paid him any money. His farm did not make much money, and he had money problems. To improve his land, he planted fast-growing trees. In 1785, he received a stud from King Charles III of Spain and began breeding mules.

Before he returned to private life in 1783, Washington asked for a strong union. He said the Articles of Confederation were "a rope of sand." When Shays's Rebellion broke out in Massachusetts in 1786, he became more certain that a new constitution was needed. Nationalists met at Annapolis, and Congress agreed to hold a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. Washington was chosen to lead Virginia's group but at first said no. James Madison and others convinced him to go, and the convention chose him to lead its meetings. The delegates debated two plans, the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan, before agreeing on the Connecticut Compromise. The Constitution was signed by 39 of 55 delegates on September 17, 1787. In 1788, Washington was named chancellor of the College of William & Mary. In February 1789, the electors voted unanimously for him as the first president. John Adams became vice president.

Presidency (1789–1797)

Main article: Presidency of George Washington

Further information: History of Washington, D.C.; American School (economics); Whiskey Rebellion; Northwest Indian War; Treaty of New York (1790); and Cabinet of the United States

Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, and took the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City. Robert R. Livingston gave the oath, using a Bible provided by the Freemasons. Washington wanted to serve without pay, but Congress insisted that he receive a salary. He chose the simple title "Mr. President" instead of grand titles. He hoped his choices would set good examples for later leaders. He used a cabinet form of the executive branch and chose the first justices for the Supreme Court. Congress created the State Department, the War Department, and the Treasury Department. Washington chose Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. Washington's closest advisors split into two groups, which led to the First Party System. Hamilton started the Federalist Party, and Jefferson started the Jeffersonian Republicans. Washington did not take a side, but he liked Hamilton's plans. Washington was re-elected in the election of 1792. He was sworn in again on March 4, 1793, in Congress Hall in Philadelphia.

When war broke out in Europe during the French Revolutionary Wars, Washington issued a proclamation saying that America would stay neutral. Later, he asked that the French minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt, be called back. During his second term, Washington faced the Whiskey Rebellion, a revolt in Pennsylvania against taxes on liquor. He handled it with a militia. He also dealt with the Northwest Indian War, which ended when American troops won the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Hamilton helped create the Jay Treaty, signed by John Jay. It kept peace with Britain and settled some debts, though it disappointed Washington in some ways. Relations with Spain got better when Thomas Pinckney negotiated the Treaty of San Lorenzo in 1795. This gave Americans access to the Mississippi River. In his final months, Washington faced strong criticism, and he was hurt by unkind attacks against him. He chose to retire at the end of his second term. This set an important example by showing that a leader did not have to run again.

Farewell Address

In his valedictory address, Washington stressed national identity. He warned against political parties and foreign alliances. He also said that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" for a republic. The address was published in the American Daily Advertiser in 1796. Many people admired it over time. Writers later compared it to the Declaration of Independence and the Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln.

Post-presidency (1797–1799)

Main article: Post-presidency of George Washington

See also: Finances of George Washington

After Washington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797, he worked on his business interests, but his farms made only a small profit. Most of his wealth was in land and enslaved people rather than cash. He built a distillery to make whiskey using his enslaved workers. He also bought land to help the new capital, Washington, D.C., grow. The capital had been named in his honor in 1791. He owned land in the west, on the Piedmont, but it earned little money. He became an even stronger Federalist. He supported the Alien and Sedition Acts and convinced John Marshall to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia. When French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, Washington wrote to James McHenry offering to help organize the army during the "Quasi-War." President Adams named him commander-in-chief of the armies in July 1798. Washington served until his death 17 months later. He helped plan the army's work but left active leadership to Hamilton.

On December 12, 1799, Washington rode out to check his farms in bad weather for five hours. Then he ate dinner with guests without changing his wet clothes. The next morning he woke with a sore throat and trouble breathing. At that time, doctors often removed blood from patients as a treatment, and this was done to him. Doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick were called to help him. His condition kept getting worse. He died on the night of December 14, 1799, with Martha beside him. His last words were "'Tis well." Historians still discuss the cause of his death. Modern medical writers have mostly concluded that he likely died from severe epiglottitis. His treatments may have made it worse, possibly by causing hypovolemic shock. Washington was buried at Mount Vernon on December 18, 1799, in a service attended mostly by family and friends. His remains were later moved into a marble sarcophagus in 1837.

Beliefs

Slavery

Further information: Slavery in the colonial United States, Slavery in the United States, and Abolitionism in the United States

During Washington's lifetime, hundreds of enslaved people lived and worked at Mount Vernon. He inherited some of them. He also gained control of many more when he married Martha, and he bought dozens of others over the years. From 1786, he rented enslaved people as part of an agreement about a nearby estate.

Slavery was deeply ingrained in life in the Colony of Virginia. At first, Washington shared the views of most Virginia planters. From the 1760s, however, he slowly came to oppose slavery. His first doubts came when he changed from growing tobacco to growing grain, which left him with extra enslaved people that cost him money to keep. As president, he stayed publicly silent on the issue, believing it could divide the nation. In his will, he freed his long-time valet Billy Lee. He also freed his other enslaved people after Martha's death.

Religious and spiritual views

Main article: Religious views of George Washington

Washington was baptized as a baby in April 1732 and was a devoted Anglican. For more than 20 years, he served as a vestryman and churchwarden at the Fairfax and Truro parishes in Virginia. He prayed and read the Bible every day. He may have taken communion regularly before the Revolution, but not afterwards.

He spoke of God using American Enlightenment words, such as Providence, the Almighty, and the Divine Author. He believed a divine power watched over his life and the nation. He often quoted the Bible and the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. As president, he opposed state religion and gave speeches about religious freedom. In 1793, he spoke to members of the New Church in Baltimore. He said that truth and reason had won out over narrow-minded beliefs and superstition.

Freemasonry was widely accepted in the late 1700s and was known for its moral teachings. American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical views of controversial European lodges. A lodge was set up in Fredericksburg, Virginia in September 1752, and Washington joined two months later at age 20. In 1777, he was recommended to be Grand Master of the newly formed Grand Lodge of Virginia, but he did not take the role.

Personal life

Washington and his wife Martha did not have any children together. Washington had smallpox in 1751, and this may have left him unable to have children. Chernow notes that Martha may have been hurt when she gave birth to Patsy, her last child, so she could not have more babies. The couple raised Martha's children John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke Custis (Patsy). Later, they also raised Jacky's two youngest children, Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy). They also helped many nieces and nephews.

Washington was somewhat quiet, but people noticed him when he was in a room. He was not a famous speaker, but he gave speeches when they were needed. He drank alcohol in small amounts, but he did not think people should drink too much. He also opposed smoking tobacco, gambling, and swearing. He was taller than most people of his time and was known for his strength. He did not wear a powdered wig. Instead, he wore his hair curled, powdered, and tied in a queue in the fashion of the day. He had serious tooth decay and lost almost all of his teeth. He used false teeth made of metal, ivory, bone, and animal teeth. To ease his pain, he took laudanum. He was also a skilled horseman, and his favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson.

Legacy

Further information: Legacy of George Washington and Historical rankings of presidents of the United States

See also: Cultural depictions of George Washington

Washington is one of the most important people in American history. Virginia's Governor Henry Lee III said he was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." Polls often rank Washington among the best presidents. He became a symbol of freedom around the world because he led the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. In 1879, Congress made Washington's Birthday a national holiday. In recent times, historians have studied his reputation closely. Some say his character was studied more than that of any other founder.

Historians do not all agree about how he treated Native Americans. Some say he tried to be fair. Others, like Colin G. Calloway, wrote that Washington wanted to take Native American land for most of his life, and that his policies caused great harm. Like other Founding Fathers, Washington held enslaved people. Some people today want his name taken off public buildings.

Further information: List of memorials to George Washington, List of statues of George Washington, and List of paintings of George Washington

Many places are named after Washington, including the capital city of Washington, D.C. and the state of Washington. The Washington Monument was opened on February 21, 1885, on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Washington is also one of four presidents carved into Mount Rushmore. The George Washington Bridge, opened in 1931, connects New York City to New Jersey. Many secondary schools and universities are named after him, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis. He appears on the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. He was also shown on the nation's first postage stamp in 1847.