Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Indigenous peoples in Brazil, also called Native Brazilians, are the communities whose ancestors lived in Brazil before Europeans arrived around the year 1500. They include many different groups that were already there before any other people came.

At one time, there were many tribes and nations living in the land that is now Brazil.

These Indigenous groups lived by hunting, fishing, gathering food from nature, and moving to grow crops.

Sadly, many of these tribes faced hard times when European settlers came. Some were hurt or lost their lives.

Because of diseases brought by newcomers, the number of Indigenous people dropped greatly. But today, the 2022 census shows that about 1.7 million people in Brazil identify as Indigenous, speaking many different languages. Most also speak Portuguese.

In 2007, Brazil had more uncontacted tribes—those who still live far from modern society—than any other country in the world. This made Brazil a leader in protecting these unique cultures.

History

Origins

Migration into the continents

In Brazil, most Native tribes living there by 1500 are believed to come from the first group of people who moved from Siberia to the Americas. These people are thought to have crossed a land bridge called Bering Land Bridge during the last Ice Age, between 13,000 and 17,000 years ago.

Genetic studies

Y-chromosome DNA

Studies of certain genetic material from men in South America show patterns that suggest some groups have been separated from others since the region was first settled.

Autosomal DNA

A study from 2012 found that Indigenous peoples of the Americas come from at least three main groups of migrants from Siberia. Most share ancestry from one group called the 'First Americans'. However, some Arctic groups inherited part of their ancestry from a second wave, and others from a third wave. The first settlers moved quickly down the coast of South America, with less mixing happening later, especially in South America. One group, the Chibcha speakers, has ancestry from both North and South America.

mtDNA

Another study looked at genetic material passed only from mothers. It found that the maternal ancestry of Indigenous peoples of the Americas comes from a few groups in Siberia, likely arriving through the Bering Strait. This study suggests these ancestors stayed near the Bering Strait for some time before spreading through the Americas and reaching South America. A 2016 study found that a small group entered the Americas along the coast about 16,000 years ago, after living in isolation in eastern Beringia for thousands of years. After spreading, there was less mixing in South America, creating distinct groups over time.

The Oceanic component in the Amazon region

Two studies from 2015 confirmed the Siberian origins of Native peoples in the Americas. However, they also found an ancient connection with Indigenous peoples from Australia and Melanesia among Native populations in the Amazon region.

Archaeological remains

Indigenous peoples in Brazil, unlike those in Mesoamerica or the Andes, did not leave written records or build stone monuments. The warm, wet climate and acidic soil destroyed most evidence of their way of life. What we know today comes from limited archaeological finds, like ceramics and stone tools.

One clear sign of their presence is large piles of shells called sambaquis, found along the coast. These places were lived in for over 5,000 years. Also, large areas of dark soil called terra preta along the Amazon are thought to be old garbage dumps. Recent digs in these areas found remains of big settlements with many homes, showing they had complex societies.

Studies of tooth wear in coastal Brazil show that people used their teeth to cut and crush tough plants.

Marajoara culture

The Marajoara culture lived on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. Archaeologists found fancy pottery there, with big, painted pieces showing plants and animals. This was the first sign of a complex society on the island. Evidence of building large earthworks suggests they lived in well-organized, crowded settlements.

There has been debate about how big and advanced the Marajoara culture was and how they interacted with resources. In the 1950s, an archaeologist thought they came from the Andes. In the 1980s, another archaeologist studied a big mound and thought the society started on the island itself.

The Marajoara may have had social classes and supported many people. The Indigenous peoples of the Amazon may have used their knowledge of terra preta to grow food for big groups and build complex societies.

Xinguano civilisation

The Xingu peoples built big settlements with roads, bridges, and moats. Their way of life was most advanced between the 13th and 17th centuries, with populations in the tens of thousands.

Native people after the European colonisation

Distribution

When the Portuguese arrived in Brazil in 1500, the coast was mainly home to two big groups: the Tupi, who lived along almost the whole coast, and the Tapuia, who lived more inland. The Portuguese arrived when these two groups had been fighting for a long time, and the Tapuia had been pushed out of most coastal areas.

Although the coastal Tupi had smaller groups that often fought each other, they shared the same culture and language. This made it easier for the early Europeans to talk to them.

Coastal groups around 1500 (from north to south):

1. Tupinambá (Tupi, from the Amazon delta to Maranhão)
2. Tremembé (Tapuia, coastal group, lived from São Luis Island to the mouth of the Acaraú River in north Ceará)
3. Potiguara (Tupi, known as "shrimp-eaters"; lived along the coast from Acaraú River to Itamaracá island, covering parts of Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Paraíba)
4. Tabajara (small Tupi group between Itamaracá island and Paraíba River)
5. Caeté (Tupi group in Pernambuco and Alagoas, from Paraíba River to the São Francisco River; after harming a Portuguese bishop, they faced attacks and were pushed inland)
6. Tupinambá again (Tupi, from the São Francisco River to the Bay of All Saints, with up to 100,000 people; they took in a Portuguese castaway named Caramuru)
7. Tupiniquim (Tupi, along the Bahian coast from around Camamu to São Mateus River; they were the first Indigenous people met by Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500)
8. Aimoré (Tapuia (Jê) group; lived along a small part of the coast in modern Espírito Santo)
9. Goitacá (Tapuia group; once controlled the coast from the São Mateus River to the Paraíba do Sul River; known for avoiding outsiders, they were eventually destroyed by European settlers)
10. Temiminó (small Tupi group, centered on Governador Island in Guanabara Bay; often fought with the Tamoio nearby)
11. Tamoio (Tupi, an older branch of the Tupinambá, from the western edge of Guanabara Bay to Ilha Grande)
12. Tupinambá again (Tupi, same as the Tamoio. Lived the Paulist coast from Ilha Grande to Santos; main enemies of the Tupiniquim west of them. Had between six and ten thousand people)
13. Tupiniquim again (Tupi, on the São Paulo coast from Santos/Bertioga to Cananéia; aggressive group, new to the area, taking over from older Tupinambá and Carijó groups; took in Portuguese castaways João Ramalho and António Rodrigues in the early 1500s; they were the first official allies of the Portuguese, helping set up the Captaincy of São Vicente in the 1530s)
14. Carijó (Guarani (Tupi) group, from Cananéia down to Lagoa dos Patos in Rio Grande do Sul; targeted by the Tupiniquim and early European slave traders; they took in a mysterious man called the 'Bachelor of Cananéia')
15. Charrúa (Tapuia (Jê) group on the modern Uruguay coast, known for being aggressive to strangers; they killed explorer Juan Díaz de Solís in 1516)

Except for the hunter-gatherer Goitacases, the coastal Tupi and Tapuia groups were mostly farmers. The subtropical Guarani grew corn, tropical Tupi grew manioc (cassava), and highland Jês grew peanuts. They also grew beans, sweet potatoes, yam, pumpkin, and pepper.

Further inland, the Tapuia (Jê) people lived in most places, but some areas, like the upper parts of the Xingu, Teles Pires, and Juruena Rivers, were original homes of Tupi-Guarani people. Besides Tupi and Tapuia, two other big groups lived in the interior: the Caribs, in much of what is now northwestern Brazil including both sides of the Amazon River up to its mouth, and the Nuaraque group, in several areas including much of the upper Amazon west of present-day Manaus and parts of Amapá and Roraima.

First contacts

When the Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil in April 1500, they found a long coastline full of resources and many Indigenous people living in what seemed like a paradise. An official writer for the fleet, Pero Vaz de Caminha, wrote a letter to the King of Portugal praising the beauty of the land.

One writer described Indigenous Brazilians as not wearing clothes but painting their bodies red. They had piercings in their ears, noses, lips, and cheeks. Men shaved the front and top of their heads and the area over their ears, while women often wore their hair down or in braids. Both men and women wore decorations like musical porcelain collars and bracelets, feathers, and dried fruits. They also practiced rituals involving the consumption of others and women had important roles in their homes.

Before Europeans came, Brazil had between 1 and 11.25 million people. In the first 100 years of contact, the Indigenous population dropped by 90%. This huge loss was mostly because of diseases brought by the colonists, made worse by slavery and violence from Europeans. The Indigenous people moved around a lot and lived by hunting, fishing, gathering, and farming. For centuries, they shaped the forests to meet their needs.

When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, Indigenous people lived mainly along the coast and big rivers. At first, Europeans thought of them as noble people, and mixing between them happened quickly. Portuguese claims about fighting among tribes, certain practices, and the search for a valuable red wood called brazilwood made the colonists think they needed to change the Indigenous way of life (the land was first called Terra de Santa Cruz, but later got its current name from the brazilwood). But, like in North America, the Portuguese brought diseases that many Indigenous people had no defense against. Diseases like measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, and influenza killed many, spreading fast through Indigenous trade routes and wiping out whole tribes without direct contact.

By 1800, Colonial Brazil had about 2.33 million people, but only around 174,900 were Indigenous. By 1850, that number fell to about 78,400 out of a total population of 5.8 million.

Slavery and the bandeiras

Over time, the first friendly feelings turned bad. The Portuguese, who were all men, had children with Indigenous women, creating a new mixed group that spoke Indigenous languages, including a Tupi language called Nheengatu. The children of these unions became the majority of the population. Groups of bold explorers called "bandeiras" went into the interior to claim land for Portugal and look for gold and precious stones.

To make money from sugar, the Portuguese wanted to grow sugar cane and use Indigenous people as workers, like the Spanish did. But capturing Indigenous people was hard. They got sick from diseases brought by Europeans and died in large numbers.

The Jesuits

Jesuit priests came with the first Governor General to help the colonists and try to turn Indigenous people to Catholicism. They said Indigenous people were human and got a special document from the Pope saying they should be treated with respect and not forced to work.

Jesuit priests, like José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, studied Indigenous languages and started mixed villages where colonists and Indigenous people lived together, spoke a common language called Língua Geral, and had children together. They also made distant villages just for "civilized" Indigenous people, called Missions or reductions. By the mid-1500s, Jesuits had set up missions all over the colonies to make Indigenous people more like Europeans and turn them Catholic. Some historians think the Jesuits gave Indigenous people a calmer time but also helped destroy their culture by trying to make them European. In the mid-1700s, because of complicated issues between Portugal, Spain, and the Vatican, the Jesuits were kicked out of Brazil and their missions were taken away.

Wars

There were many wars between different tribes, like the Tamoio Confederation, and the Portuguese. Sometimes Indigenous people worked with Portugal's enemies, like the French during the France Antarctique time in Rio de Janeiro. Other times they worked with Portugal against other tribes. A German soldier named Hans Staden was captured by the Tupinambá and later set free. He wrote a famous book about his experiences.

Some Brazilian villagers used sickness as a way to hurt nearby Indigenous tribes. One well-known example was in Caxias, in southern Maranhão. Local farmers gave clothes from sick people to the Timbira tribe, infecting them with a disease they had no way to fight. This happened in other places too across South America.

The rubber trade

The 1840s brought trade and wealth to the Amazon because a new way to make rubber strong was found, and the world wanted more rubber. The best rubber trees grew in the Amazon, so thousands of people started working on rubber farms. When Indigenous people were hard to manage as workers, people from nearby areas were brought in. This caused tension because Indigenous people felt their lands were being taken over in the chase for money.

The legacy of Cândido Rondon

In the 1900s, Brazil started treating Indigenous people better and giving them protection, including setting up the first Indigenous reserves. Things got better around the turn of the century when Cândido Rondon, who had both Portuguese and Bororo background, began helping Indigenous people and making peace. Rondon, an army officer and explorer, helped set up the Serviço de Proteção aos Índios (SPI), now called FUNAI (Fundação Nacional do Índio, National Foundation for Indians). SPI was the first government group to protect Indigenous people and their culture. In 1914, Rondon went with Theodore Roosevelt on an expedition to map the Amazon and find new animals. Rondon saw how settlers and developers treated Indigenous people and became their friend and defender for life.

Rondon died in 1958 and is a hero in Brazil. The state of Rondônia is named after him.

SPI failure and FUNAI

After Rondon's work, SPI was given to bureaucrats and military officers, and it did not work as well after 1957. The new leaders did not care as much about Indigenous people. They wanted to mix tribes into Brazilian society. The promise of money from land attracted farmers and ranchers, who kept taking Indigenous land, and SPI helped this happen. Between 1900 and 1967, about 98 Indigenous tribes were lost.^{[citation needed]}

Because of the work of the Villas-Bôas brothers, Brazil set up its first Indigenous reserve, the Xingu National Park, in 1961.

During social and political problems in the 1960s, reports about bad treatment of Indigenous people reached cities and changed public opinion. In 1967, after the Figueiredo Report for the Ministry of the Interior, the military government looked into SPI. They found SPI was corrupt and not protecting Native people, their lands, or their culture. The report listed many terrible things like forcing people to work, hurting them, and killing them.

That same year, the government set up the Fundação Nacional do Índio (National Indian Foundation), called FUNAI, to protect Indigenous people's interests, cultures, and rights. Some tribes have joined Brazilian society. Tribes that have not had much contact are supposed to be protected and helped to fit into society in different ways. Since 1987, it has been understood that not contacting these tribes causes sickness and breaks up their society. Uncontacted tribes are now kept away from people who might bother them.

The military government

In 1964, Brazil's military took control of the government and ended all political parties, starting a two-party system. For the next 20 years, generals ruled Brazil. They said Brazil should be "the Country of the Future" and used this to explain cutting down large parts of the Amazon to get resources and make Brazil a big economy.

They started building a road across the Amazon to help people move there and trade. This was paid for by the World Bank, and thousands of miles of forest were cut down without thinking about whether it was Indigenous land. After the roads, big projects to make power were started, and large areas of forest were cut down for cattle farms. Because of these projects, Indigenous lands lost trees and were flooded. The projects brought few new people, but those who came brought diseases that hurt the Indigenous population even more.

Contemporary situation

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution says Indigenous people have the right to live their traditional ways and to own their "traditional lands" forever. These lands are marked out as Indigenous Territories. They are also recognized as one of several "traditional peoples". But in practice, Indigenous people in Brazil still face big threats to their way of life and culture.

Marking out land takes a long time and has many legal problems, and FUNAI does not have enough money to make sure laws are followed on Indigenous lands. Since the 1980s, cutting down the Amazon Rainforest for mining, logging, and cattle farms has gotten worse, which is a big danger to Indigenous people there. People moving onto Indigenous land illegally keep destroying the environment they need, causing fights, and spreading diseases.

Some groups, like the Akuntsu and Kanoê, are close to disappearing. Pollution from mining affects daily life for Indigenous tribes. For example, the Munduruku people have more poison in their bodies because of gold mining nearby. On 13 November 2012, a group representing Indigenous people in Brazil sent a document to the United Nations about laws they think will hurt their rights if they become law.

Many words from Indigenous languages are used in everyday Brazilian Portuguese. For example, "Carioca" - a word for people from Rio de Janeiro - comes from a Tupi-Guarani word meaning "house of the white (people)."

Within hours of starting in 2019, the president made big changes to FUNAI that took away its job of finding and marking Indigenous territories. He moved FUNAI to a new ministry and gave the job of deciding which areas to protect to the Agriculture Ministry. He said these areas had very few people and suggested mixing them into larger society. Critics worried this would destroy their culture. A few months later, Brazil's Congress changed these decisions back.

An agreement to trade between the European Union and Mercosur, which would make one of the world's biggest trade areas, has been criticized by people who care about the environment and Indigenous rights. They worry it will lead to more cutting down of the Amazon rainforest by letting more Brazilian beef be sold.

A report in 2019 by a group working for Indigenous people in Brazil showed more attacks on Indigenous lands by people cutting trees, mining, and taking land. The report counted 160 cases in the first nine months of 2019, more than the 96 cases for all of 2017. Also, the number of reported killings went from 110 in 2017 to 135 in 2018.

On 5 May 2020, after an investigation by Human Rights Watch (HRW), Brazilian lawmakers put out a report about violence against Indigenous people, communities of Black Brazilians who live in rural areas, and others involved in illegal cutting of trees, mining, and land grabbing.

Indigenous rights movements

Many Indigenous groups in Brazil have come together in cities to fight for their rights. Because Brazil has a gap between rich and poor, many Indigenous people move to cities. They do this by choice or because they had to leave their homes. In cities, they form groups to support each other and work for better opportunities. These groups help them find jobs and start small projects, sometimes working with groups like Oxfam. Young Indigenous people are also getting more involved as they go to school and meet others.

Indigenous groups also work to protect their land and environment. They have kept a big part of the Amazon as their land, but they still face challenges. Climate change makes it harder to protect their homes. Some Indigenous villages work with environmental groups to protect nature and their rights. However, not everyone agrees with their efforts, as some people want to use the land for building or farming. This can lead to disagreements over who should own and use the land.

Education

Main article: Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous History and Culture Law

In Brazil, there is a special law that helps schools teach about the history and culture of Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous peoples. The law was made on 10 March 2008 so that everyone can learn about these important parts of Brazil's past.

Major ethnic groups

For a complete list, see List of Indigenous peoples in Brazil.

• Amanayé
• Atikum
• Awá-Guajá
• Baniwa
• Botocudo
• Bará
• Enawene Nawe
• Guaraní
• Kadiwéu
• Kaingang
• Kamayurá (Kamaiurá)
• Karajá
• Kayapo
• Kubeo
• Kaxinawá
• Kokama
• Korubo
• Kulina Madihá
• Mbya
• Makuxi
• Matsés
• Mayoruna
• Munduruku
• Mura people
• Nambikwara
• Ofayé
• Pai Tavytera
• Panará
• Pankararu
• Pataxó
• Pirahã
• Paiter
• Potiguara
• Sateré Mawé
• Suruí do Pará
• Tapirape
• Terena
• Ticuna
• Tremembé
• Tupi
• Waorani
• Wapixana
• Wauja
• Witoto
• Xakriabá
• Xavante
• Xokleng
• Xukuru
• Yanomami