Northern Yuan

The Northern Yuan was a state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan in the Mongolian Plateau. It started after the end of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and ended when it was taken over by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty in 1635. The Later Jin dynasty later changed its name to the Qing dynasty.

The Northern Yuan began when the Yuan imperial court, led by Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong of Yuan), moved to the Mongolian steppe. During this time, there were struggles between different groups, and the role of the Great Khan was often not very strong.

Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun brought together most Mongol tribes in the late 1400s. However, when Dayan Khan gave parts of his land to his sons and relatives as fiefs, it weakened the central power of the imperial rule. Even with this, the leaders of Dayan Khan's family worked together well, and there were no big wars among them until the time of Ligdan Khan (1604–1634). Ligdan Khan lost much of his power in conflicts with the Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty.

In the last sixty years of this period, Tibetan Buddhism became very important in Mongol society.

Name

The state that existed between 1368 and 1635 had many names, including the Northern Yuan. Its official name was "_Great Yuan'" (Chinese: 大元) from 1368 to 1388, just like the earlier Yuan dynasty. After Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür died, his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder stopped using "Great Yuan" and other Chinese-style titles. So, "Northern Yuan" often means the years from 1368 to 1388. The name "Northern Yuan" comes from the Chinese term "北元" (Běi Yuán), used to tell it apart from the earlier Yuan dynasty that began in 1271.

In English, "Northern Yuan" usually covers the whole time from 1368 to 1635. Before 1388 and during the rule of Esen Taishi, the Mongols also used "Great Yuan". They called their state "Ikh Mongol Uls", meaning the "Great Mongol State". Other names include "Post-Imperial Mongolia", the "Mongol(ian) Khaganate", or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate". In Mongolian, this time is called "The Forty and the Four" (Döchin Dörben), meaning forty groups of eastern Mongols and four groups of western Mongols. The Chinese Ming dynasty called them "Tatar" and "Wala" after the Mongols split into eastern and western groups.

History

See also: Timeline of the Northern Yuan

Origin

The Northern Yuan dynasty was the last part of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) created by Kublai Khan. After defeating the Song dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all of China proper for about a hundred years. The Mongols had already controlled Northern China for over 40 years before that, after they took over the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234.

Problems began for the Yuan in 1344 when the Yellow River flooded and changed its path. This made travel on the Grand Canal very difficult. In 1351, a rebellion called the Red Turban Rebellion started. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang led this rebellion and later founded the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in southern China. By 1368, a Ming army had reached the Yuan capital, Khanbaliq or Dadu, which is now Beijing.

Retreat to Mongolian Steppe (1368–1388)

Toghon Temür (r. 1333–1370), the last Yuan ruler, fled north to Shangdu in present-day Inner Mongolia when the Ming forces came near. He tried to retake Dadu but failed and died.

The Mongols moved to Karakorum in the Mongol heartland. They kept calling themselves the "Great Yuan," but people later called them the "Northern Yuan." The Ming army chased them into the Mongolian steppe but were defeated. In 1375, a Mongol official tried to bring back Mongol control in China but surrendered to the Ming in 1387–88. Other Yuan supporters were defeated by the Ming.

In 1380, the Ming attacked Northern Yuan and destroyed Karakorum. In 1387, the Ming defeated the Uriankhai Mongols, and in 1388, they won a battle near the Buir Lake. This defeat weakened Yuan power and helped the Western Oirat Mongols grow stronger.

The rulers of Northern Yuan still called themselves Emperors of the Great Yuan to challenge the Ming.

Oirat domination (1388–1478)

See also: Four Oirat

In 1388, a Mongol took the throne with help from the Oirats. In 1389, a man created his own small state.

Over the next century, many Mongol rulers were controlled by powerful leaders. The Mongols split into three groups. The Uriankhai surrendered to the Ming and were divided into three groups.

Relations between the Mongols and the Ming included both fighting and trading. In 1403, a Mongol leader refused to obey the Ming, leading to several Ming campaigns against the Mongols. In 1449, a powerful Oirat leader captured the Ming emperor during a battle, but could not take Beijing and later made peace.

After this leader died, fighting among Mongol leaders continued until one brought most of them together by 1478.

Restoration (1479–1600)

Second reunification

A leader's wife made a young boy the new khan. He was called Dayan. They worked hard to unite the Mongol tribes. By 1510, Dayan had brought most Mongols together.

Dayan divided the Mongols into six groups. His youngest son became the leader of the largest group, the Khalkha Mongols.

Last reunification

After Dayan died, the Mongols started to split again. By 1540, new leaders took control in different areas. A leader brought the Mongols back together with help from others. He tried to create new laws for the Mongols.

Conversion to Buddhism

Although earlier Yuan rulers followed Buddhism, most Mongols practiced shamanism. Starting in 1575, many Mongols began converting to Tibetan Buddhism. Leaders invited Buddhist teachers from Tibet, and soon many Mongols became Buddhist.

Fall (1600–1635)

By the time of Ligdan Khan (r. 1604–1634), the Mongol groups were no longer united.

In 1616, a tribal leader named Nurhaci began to grow powerful. The Jurchens were near the Mongols. Nurhaci wanted to conquer the Ming dynasty and made alliances with some Mongol groups.

Ligdan fought against these Mongol allies in 1625. The army defeated him. In 1628, Ligdan was defeated again and lost control over most Mongols. He died in 1634. His son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1635, ending the rule of the Northern Yuan.

Aftermath

See also: Dzungar–Qing War

Outer Mongolia

In 1636, the Manchus took control of Inner Mongolia. The son of Ligdan Khan, Ejei, died for unclear reasons. His brother Abunai refused to meet the Manchus, and his son Burni rebelled but was defeated and died. The Qing rulers then took control of the Chahar Mongols.

In Outer Mongolia, the Khalkhas still resisted the Manchus. Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj kept his independence and led two other khans. Another leader, Altan Khan of the Khalkha, also emerged. After losing Inner Mongolia and an important seal, the Mongols looked for new power. In 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the main spiritual leader for Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj tried to keep peace with the Manchus by sending gifts, but this failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming dynasty and took Beijing in 1644. In 1646, a Mongol leader rebelled but was defeated. In 1647, Gombodorj fought the Qing with many cavalry but neither side won clearly. Both sides lost men, and the Mongols could no longer challenge the Qing directly.

Dzungar Khanate

To the west, around 1600–1620, the Oirats united under Kharkhul. In 1635, they formed the Dzungar Khanate under Erdeni Batur, Kharkhul's son. This union happened partly because of wars with the Altan Khans. After one leader lost some of his people, Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungars moved his camp near the Altai Mountains to plan an attack. This led to battles, and in 1688, Galdan led Dzungar soldiers into Outer Mongolia and defeated another leader quickly. The Siberian Cossacks also defeated a Khalkha army.

By 1690, Galdan controlled much of Outer Mongolia. The Qing worried about this and blocked him. In 1696, the Qing emperor led many troops into Mongolia. Galdan fled but was caught and defeated. Galdan escaped with a few followers and died in the Altai Mountains in 1697. His nephew Tsewang Rabtan took control of Dzungaria by 1691. Outer Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned as vassals. The Dzungars later expanded but were conquered by the Qing.