Northern Yuan

The Northern Yuan was a state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan. It was based in the Mongolian Plateau. It became a rump state after the Yuan dynasty fell in 1368. It lasted until 1635, when it was conquered by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, which was later renamed the Qing dynasty.

The Northern Yuan began when the Yuan imperial court, led by Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong of Yuan), moved back to the Mongolian steppe. This was a time of conflict between different groups. The Great Khan often had only a small role.

In the late 1400s, Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun brought most of the Mongol tribes back together. Dayan Khan then shared his lands among his sons and relatives as fiefs. This made the imperial rule more spread out. Even so, the Dayan Khanid nobles stayed mostly united. Fighting between members of the Chinggisid family did not happen until the time of Ligdan Khan (1604–1634). Ligdan Khan lost much of his power in arguments with the Mongol tribes. He was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty. In the last sixty years of this period, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely through Mongol society.

The name "Northern Yuan" is a label that historians use for convenience. The name "Great Yuan" was given up by Jorightu Khan Yesüder in 1388. Some Mongol leaders still used the name Great Yuan now and then until the early 1600s.

Name

The period from 1368 to 1635 has several names. The name "Great Yuan" (Chinese: 大元; pinyin: Dà Yuán) was officially used from 1368 to 1388, as was the earlier Yuan dynasty. After Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür died, his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder dropped the "Great Yuan" name and Han-style imperial titles. For this reason, "Northern Yuan" is sometimes used only for the years 1368 to 1388. The name comes from the Chinese term 北元, where "Northern" separates this state from the Yuan dynasty, which was founded in 1271. The name first appeared in the Korean text Goryeosa, which was written in Classical Chinese.

Some scholars think that Dayan Khan's name "Dayan" came from "Great Yuan." There is also evidence that Taisun Khan, Esen Taishi, Manduul Khan, and Ligdan Khan used the "Great Yuan" name and Han-style titles into the early 1600s. In English, "Northern Yuan (dynasty)" covers the whole period from 1368 to 1635. The Mongols called their state "Yeke Mongghol Ulus," which means "Great Mongol State." Some modern sources also use other names, such as "Post-Imperial Mongolia," the "Mongol(ian) Khaganate," or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate." These names can also refer to the Mongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty. Mongolian chronicles call this period "The Forty and the Four," meaning forty tümen of Eastern Mongols and four tümen of Western Mongols. After the Mongols split into eastern and western parts, the Chinese Ming dynasty called them "Tatar" and "Wala."

History

See also: Timeline of the Northern Yuan

See also: Four Oirat

The Northern Yuan was what remained of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), which was started by Kublai Khan. Yuan rule in China began to fall apart in 1344, when the Yellow River flooded. In 1368, a Ming army marched toward the Yuan capital, Khanbaliq or Dadu, which is today's Beijing. The last Yuan ruler, Toghon Temür, fled north to Shangdu and died in Yingchang in 1370. The Mongols then went back to Karakorum. They still called their state the "Great Yuan," which later became known as the "Northern Yuan." Mongol leaders fought for power for many years. In 1388, Jorightu Khan Yesüder became ruler with the help of the Oirats, who grew very strong. Under Esen Taishi, the Oirats captured the Zhengtong Emperor in 1449, in an event known as the Tumu Crisis. Esen was killed in 1455 after people rebelled against him, and the Oirats became weaker for a time.

Later, Dayan Khan helped bring the Mongols back together and fought against the Ming dynasty for many years. He divided the Mongols into groups called tümens and gave them to his sons. After he died, the Mongols split apart again. In 1575, many Mongols in the Right Wing Tumens became followers of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1577, Altan and Sechen welcomed the 3rd Dalai Lama. By the time of Ligdan Khan, the Eastern Mongol tumens no longer worked together as one group. The Jurchens, led by Nurhaci and later Hong Taiji, grew powerful and defeated Ligdan's forces. Ligdan died in 1634. His son, Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Qing dynasty and handed over the Imperial Seal of the Mongols in February 1635. This ended the Northern Yuan, which had been ruled by descendants of Kublai Khan.

Aftermath

See also: Dzungar–Qing Wars

By 1636, the Manchus had taken control of all of Inner Mongolia. The successors of the Mongol Empire were also under Manchu rule. Ejei, the son of Ligdan Khan, died in unclear circumstances. His title passed to his brother Abunai, who refused to attend court with the Manchus. Later it passed to Abunai's son Burni, who rebelled in 1675. He was defeated and died in battle. In Outer Mongolia, Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj stayed independent. Altan Khan of the Khalkha also gained power in the Jasagtu area. In 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the spiritual leader of the Gelug Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj tried to keep peace with the Manchus by sending gifts. He also stopped sending horses to the Ming dynasty. Talks broke down after the Manchus defeated the Ming in 1644 and took Beijing. In 1647, Gombodorj fought the Qing, and neither side won. Gombodorj died in the mid-1600s. His young son Chikhundorj took his place. In 1655, the Qing began choosing their own lamas in Tusheet lands. Outer Mongolia slowly came under Qing control.

Around 1600 to 1620, the Oirats joined together under Kharkhul. In 1635, Kharkhul's son Erdeni Batur formed the Dzungar Khanate. This was partly because of their conflicts with the Altan Khans. Galdan Boshugtu Khan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare for an attack. In 1687, Chikhundorj attacked the Khalkhas and killed Shira. In 1688, Galdan's younger brother Dorji-jav was defeated. Chikhundorj then beat the Khalkhas near Lake Baikal, where the Siberian Cossacks were also fighting. Using Russian guns, Galdan led 30,000 troops into Outer Mongolia. He defeated Chikhundorj in three days. After more battles near Erdene Zuu Monastery, Chikhundorj and his brother Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert. They submitted to the Kangxi Emperor. By 1690, Galdan controlled Outer Mongolia. However, the Kangxi Emperor stopped him from advancing toward Beijing. Galdan lost at the Battle of Ulan Butung and the Battle of Jao Modo. In 1697, he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd. His nephew Tsewang Rabtan already controlled Dzungaria. Outer Mongolia then became part of the Qing Empire, and the Qing placed soldiers at Ulaanbaatar. The Dzungars later spread into Tibet and Kazakhstan. The Qing conquered them in 1755, and all resistance ended by 1758.