Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War was a long and important conflict fought in the Eastern Mediterranean between the Athenian-led Delian League and the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League from 431 to 404 BC. The war was about which group would have the most power over Ancient Greece. It began when the Spartan king Archidamus II invaded the region of Attica.

The war had many parts, including a period called the Ten Years' War and a conflict in Argos. Athens also tried to conquer Syracuse in Sicily, but this did not work. With help from the Persian Empire, Sparta was able to defeat Athens. After the war, Athens lost its power, and Sparta became the leading city in Greece for a time.

This war changed life in ancient Greece. Many cities were destroyed, and both Athens and the areas controlled by Sparta suffered. The fighting became harder, showing deep divisions between different ways of governing. These changes helped set the stage for later times when outside forces would control parts of Greece.

Historic sources

The main source for learning about the Peloponnesian War is a book called The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. Thucydides was an Athenian who fought early in the war and later wrote about it. He tried to give a fair and detailed account, though some parts were his own interpretation. His book stops before the war ended.

Another writer, Xenophon, continued the story in his book Hellenica. He was from Athens but lived in Sparta later and wrote about how the war ended. Other writers, like Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch, also wrote about the war, adding more details from earlier works that we no longer have. We also learn from old buildings, artworks, and writings that survived, giving us a picture of everyday life during the war.

Prelude

Thucydides said that as Athens grew stronger, Sparta became worried, which made war very likely. For about 50 years before the big war, Athens had become a powerful city. It all started with a group of cities called the Delian League, formed after fighting the Greco-Persian Wars. After defending against attacks from Persia, Athens led other Greek cities to attack Persian lands. During this time, called the Pentecontaetia, Athens grew into something like an empire, controlling many places and building a big navy.

Tensions grew between Athens and Sparta and their friends. Once, Sparta asked Athens not to rebuild its walls, but Athens said no. Later, when Sparta had a big problem, Athens tried to help but was turned away. This made Athens and Sparta stop being friends. Small fights happened, like when Athens made an alliance with Megara, which led to the First Peloponnesian War. Finally, they signed the Thirty Years' Peace, agreeing to stay out of each other’s affairs. But problems kept happening, like arguments between Athens and Corinth over sea battles, and when Athens asked a town called Potidaea to take down its walls. These events helped push both sides toward war.

Archidamian War (431–421 BC)

The first years of the Peloponnesian War are called the Archidamian War. It is named after Sparta's king Archidamus II. The war began when the Thebans attacked an Athenian place called Plataea in 431 BC. Sparta was strong on land with big armies. Athens was strong on the sea and had wealth from islands in the Aegean Sea. Because of this, they had trouble fighting each other directly.

Athens was led by a wise leader named Pericles. He told Athens to avoid big fights on land and use the navy instead. But a sickness spread in Athens and caused many deaths, including Pericles. After his death, Athens had new leaders like Cleon and a clever general named Demosthenes. They attacked land owned by Sparta and trapped some Spartan soldiers on an island. This shocked many people because Spartans were thought to be very strong and hard to beat. Later, a Spartan general named Brasidas captured an important town from Athens. This led to more fighting. Finally, both sides agreed to a truce, or a pause in the fighting.

Peace of Nicias (421 BC)

Main article: Peace of Nicias

Two strong leaders died. They wanted to keep fighting. After that, a peace agreement called the Peace of Nicias was made. This peace lasted for six years. But small fights still happened around the Peloponnese area.

Some of Sparta's allies thought about breaking away. They got help from Argos. Argos was a strong nearby city that stayed independent. With support from Athens, Argos and other cities formed a group to stand together.

The big battle at Mantinea was one of the largest fights in Greece during this time. Many cities joined forces against Sparta. Sparta's strong soldiers won the battle. They broke the group of cities apart. Sparta kept control over the area.

During a pause in fighting, Athens went to the island of Melos. They asked Melos to join their side. Melos refused. Athens surrounded the city until it fell. After that, many of the people were taken away from their homes.

Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC)

Main article: Sicilian Expedition

In the 17th year of the Peloponnesian War, Athens heard that one of their friends in Sicily was in trouble. Syracuse, the biggest city on the island, was attacking them. Athens decided to help and hoped to take control of all of Sicily. This would give them many useful things.

The leader of this mission, Alcibiades, was later accused of a serious crime. He ran away to Sparta and told them that Athens planned to use Sicily as a base to attack Italy and Carthage.

The Athenian fleet, with over 100 ships and many soldiers, landed in Sicily. But they faced tough fighting from Syracuse and their allies, who got help from Sparta. After many battles, the Athenian forces lost. A lunar eclipse made them wait before leaving, and they were finally defeated in a big sea battle. The remaining Athenian soldiers were captured or made to fight for the enemy. This loss was a big problem for Athens in the war.

Second War (413–404 BC)

The Spartans wanted to attack Athens. They built a fort at Decelea near Athens. This made it hard for the people of Athens to get food and supplies.

Athens had sent soldiers and ships to fight in Sicily but lost. After this, many people thought Athens might lose the war. But Athens fought back. They used some saved ships and won several battles. Leaders like Alcibiades helped support Athens.

From 414 BC, the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, Darius II, became worried about Athens. He ordered his commanders to help Sparta. This help made it easier for Sparta to win.

Later, Darius II sent his son Cyrus the Younger to help Sparta more. Cyrus worked with the Spartan general Lysander. His support was important for Sparta’s victory over Athens.

Athenian defeat

After a small Spartan victory at the battle of Notium in 406 BC, Alcibiades was not chosen to lead Athens again and left the city. Although Athens won at the battle of Arginusae, bad weather made it hard to help their crew or defeat their enemies. This made many people in Athens angry, and six top naval leaders were executed.

The new Spartan general, Lysander, was very good in battles and talks. He worked with Cyrus the Younger, son of Emperor Darius II, to stop Athens from getting grain by moving to the Dardanelles. In 405 BC, Lysander trapped and destroyed most of the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami. Athens became weak and hungry. By April 25, 404 BC, Athens gave up. The city lost its walls, fleet, and lands far away. The Spartans decided not to destroy Athens but to make it follow their rules.

Aftermath

After the war ended, Sparta took control of the places Athens used to rule. Athens was briefly ruled by a strict group set up by Sparta, but later returned to being a democracy.

Though Athens lost its power, it still took part in Greek affairs. Sparta tried to help Greek cities near the Persian Empire, but this led to more fighting. Eventually, Thebes defeated Sparta, and later Macedon became the strongest force in Greece, uniting most of it under one rule.

In 1996, the leaders of Athens and Sparta signed a symbolic peace agreement almost 2,400 years after the war.