Unification of Italy

The unification of Italy was a big change that happened in the 1800s. It was when many different parts of the Italian land came together to form one country called the Kingdom of Italy. Before this, Italy had several smaller states, each ruled differently. People wanted Italy to be one nation and free from other countries.

Important leaders helped make this happen. There was King Victor Emmanuel II, a wise leader who became known as Father of the Fatherland. Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, a smart politician, helped plan the way forward. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a brave general, led soldiers to join the lands together. And Giuseppe Mazzini, a writer and speaker, shared ideas about freedom with many people.

The unification started after big protests in the late 1840s and finally finished in 1871 when Rome became the capital city. Even after that, some Italian-speaking areas were still not part of the new country until after World War I. Italy still celebrates this important time every year on March 17, remembering when the Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed.

Background

From ancient times to early modern era

Italy was first united by the Roman Republic around the third century BCE. It was an important part of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy was ruled by different groups, including the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Lombards. Over time, Italy split into many smaller states and cities.

During the Renaissance, writers like Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli dreamed of a united Italy. Later, battles such as the Italian Wars brought foreign powers like Spain and France into control of parts of Italy.

French Revolution and Napoleonic era

The French Revolution brought big changes to Italy. New ideas about government spread, and many Italian people hoped for a united country. When Napoleon took control, he set up new governments in Italy that were influenced by France. After Napoleon’s defeat, Italy was controlled again by other countries, mainly the Austrian Empire.

Reaction (1815–1848)

After Napoleon left, Italy was split again and controlled by Austria and other powers. Many Italians still wanted to be united. Writers and thinkers shared these ideas, and some created secret groups to work toward unification.

Carbonari

One of these secret groups was called the Carbonari. They were made up of middle-class people who wanted freedom and a united Italy. Though they faced harsh punishments, they kept working for change.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi

Two important leaders, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, dreamed of a free and united Italy. Mazzini created a group called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) to work toward this goal. Garibaldi had to leave Italy but returned later with experience from fighting in other countries.

Early revolutionary activity

Exiles and European and masculine ideals

Many important leaders for Italy's unification lived far away from their country after revolutions failed. Away from Italy, they wrote and spoke about what it meant to be Italian. They talked about old ideas from Europe that described Italians in negative ways. These leaders both agreed with and fought against these ideas, often talking about what it would mean for Italy to become strong like other European countries.

Two Sicilies insurrection

In 1820, people in Spain stood up for their rights, which inspired others in Italy. Soldiers in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, led by Guglielmo Pepe, also wanted change. They took control of part of the land and made the king agree to new rules. But they did not get enough support from ordinary people, and soldiers from Austria stopped the movement. The king took away the new rules and punished those who supported the change. Many people who wanted change in Sicily, like the scholar Michele Amari, had to leave their homes for many years.

Piedmont insurrection

In 1821, Santorre di Santarosa led a movement in Piedmont to remove Austrian control and bring Italy together under the House of Savoy. The revolt began in Alessandria, where soldiers used the green, white, and red tricolore flag of the Cisalpine Republic. King Victor Emmanuel I stepped down, and Prince Charles Albert agreed to new rules to calm the situation. But when King Charles Felix returned, he rejected the new rules and asked for help from Austria. Santarosa's forces were defeated, and he fled to Paris.

In Milan, Silvio Pellico and Pietro Maroncelli tried to reduce Austrian control through education. In October 1820, they were arrested and put in prison.

1830 insurrections

Main article: Revolutions of 1830

Before 1830, few people thought an Italian nation could exist. Italy had eight different states, each with its own laws and traditions. Italians who cared about their country were often forced to leave. After 1830, feelings for a united Italy grew stronger, and a series of uprisings helped lay the groundwork for one nation.

During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, King Charles X was forced to step down, and Louis-Philippe became king. He had promised to help if Austria tried to stop uprisings in Italy, but he did not keep this promise. The Duke of Modena arrested revolutionaries like Ciro Menotti.

At the same time, uprisings happened in Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì, Ancona, and Perugia in the Papal Legations. These areas adopted the tricolore flag instead of the Papal flag and declared plans to unite as the Italian United Provinces. The Pope asked Austria for help, and Austrian troops moved through Italy, stopping the uprisings and ending the revolutionary movement.

Revolutions of 1848–1849 and First Italian War of Independence

Main articles: Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states and First Italian War of Independence

In 1844, two brothers from Venice, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, members of Young Italy, tried to help unify Italy. They sailed to the Calabrian coast to support people in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. They were caught and this event inspired others.

In 1847, the song Il Canto degli Italiani, which later became Italy’s national anthem, was sung for the first time. It was written by Goffredo Mameli and set to music by Michele Novaro.

In 1848, protests began in Lombardy and spread to Sicily and Naples. In Sicily, a new government was formed. In Tuscany, a constitution was allowed. Pope Pius IX also granted a constitution. In Milan, people fought and pushed out Austrian forces.

Soon after, Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia, declared war on Austria. His forces won at first but were later defeated. In Rome, Pope Pius IX left when new leaders arrived.

Later, Charles Albert tried again to fight Austria but was defeated. Fighting continued in other parts of Italy. Eventually, the old rulers took control again.

Cavour and prospects for unification

The idea of uniting Italy stayed strong. Leaders like Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour worked to modernize the country. He helped guide Italy toward unification, focusing on building a strong monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy.

Towards the Kingdom of Italy

Victor Emmanuel II (left) and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (right), leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the first king and first Prime Minister of unified Italy.

In 1857, Carlo Pisacane, an aristocrat from Naples, tried to start a rebellion in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. His small group landed on the island of Ponza, freed many prisoners, but failed to get local support. Pisacane was killed by locals.

The Second War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when the Sardinian leader Count Cavour allied with Napoleon III. This led to a war with Austria. The French and Sardinians defeated Austria at the Battle of Magenta and the Battle of Solferino. Volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi also helped by defeating Austrian forces. The war ended with an agreement that gave Lombardy to Sardinia, but Austria kept control of other areas.

In early 1860, only a few states remained separate in Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi gathered about a thousand volunteers and landed near Marsala in Sicily. They fought and won several battles against the forces of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi took control of Sicily and then moved to the mainland. People welcomed him, and many areas joined the new Kingdom of Italy.

After taking the capital city of Naples, Garibaldi handed over power to Victor Emmanuel II, who became the first King of Italy. By 1861, most of Italy was united, though Rome would not become the capital until 1871.

Third War of Independence (1866)

Main article: Third Italian War of Independence

See also: Plebiscite of Veneto of 1866

In 1866, Italy joined with Prussia in a war against Austria. Italy wanted to take control of Venetia from Austria. Even though Italy faced some losses, like at Custoza and the Battle of Lissa, Garibaldi's volunteers won at the Battle of Bezzecca.

Because Prussia won the war, Austria had to give up Venetia. The people voted, and Venetia became part of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel visited Venice to celebrate this happy moment.

Rome

Mentana and Villa Glori

The group working to unite Italy wanted Rome to be the capital. In 1867, a leader named Garibaldi tried to capture Rome, but he was defeated by soldiers from the Papal army with help from France.

Before this battle, two brothers named Enrico and Giovanni Cairoli tried to reach Rome by boat. They planned to join a rebellion inside the city. However, when they arrived, the rebellion had already ended. Sadly, Giovanni was hurt, and Enrico was killed during the fight.

Memorial

There is a simple white column at the place where Enrico died, remembering him and his companions. Nearby stands a bronze statue showing Giovanni holding Enrico.

Capture of Rome

Main article: Capture of Rome

In 1870, France recalled its soldiers from Rome after starting a war with Prussia. This gave Italy the chance to move forward. The Italian army entered Rome on September 20 after a short battle. Rome became part of Italy, and later, in 1871, it was made the country's capital.

Problems

When Italy united in the 1860s, not all promises were kept. The new Kingdom of Italy was mostly led by people from one area, Piedmont. Many jobs went to people from Piedmont, and their rules and taxes were used everywhere.

Some people were unhappy, especially in places like Sicily and Naples. There were protests and uprisings in these areas in the early years of the new kingdom. The pope did not agree with the new government after losing control of Rome.

The way Italy was governed did not always match what people in the south hoped for. Some writers from the north described southern Italy in negative ways, which affected how the government treated those areas.

Historiography

See also: Brigantaggio and Southern question

The unification of Italy is still a topic that many people talk about. After Italy became one country, some leaders thought the government needed to help bring all Italians together. One famous leader, Massimo d'Azeglio, said, "Italy has been made. Now it remains to make Italians."

Some believed the new government made mistakes. For example, the north and south of Italy had very different economies. When the same economic rules were applied to both, the south had a hard time. Some thought these changes should have happened more slowly to help the south.

Later historians have kept studying the successes and failures of Italy's unification.

Risorgimento and Italian irredentism

Main article: Italian irredentism

Origins of Italian irredentism

The unification of Italy in the 19th century did not include all areas where people spoke Italian. Many Italian speakers were still outside the new Kingdom of Italy, leading to a movement called Italian irredentism. This movement wanted to bring these areas into Italy.

The term Risorgimento means "rising again" and refers to the effort to unify Italy and build national pride. It aimed to end foreign rule over Italian lands. Some think it helped modernize Italian culture, while others believe it helped mainly wealthy classes.

Italia irredenta was a nationalist movement that started after unification. It believed Italy should include all nearby areas with Italian-speaking people. This idea was common in Europe during the 19th century.

At first, Italian irredentism focused on areas where Italians were the majority but were controlled by the Austrian Empire after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. During World War One, the main areas wanted were Trento and Trieste.

The movement later expanded to include areas with smaller Italian populations, such as South Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and Gradisca, part of Dalmatia, the city of Fiume, Corsica, Malta, Nice, and Swiss Italy.

Many Italian speakers in Istria and Dalmatia supported the Risorgimento. After the Third Italian War of Independence, when Veneto and Friuli joined Italy, Istria and Dalmatia stayed with the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This led to rising Italian irredentism in these areas. The Austrians saw Italians as enemies and favored local communities in Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia.

Istrian Italians made up about a third of the population in 1900. Dalmatia also had significant Italian communities in its coastal cities. For example, in Split in 1890, about 9% of people were Italian speakers. In Zadar, it was about 27%. But in other places, the number of Italian speakers dropped sharply between 1890 and 1910. By 1909, Italian was no longer an official language in Dalmatia.

Irredentism and the World Wars

Italy entered World War One in 1915 to help unify the country. This is sometimes called the Fourth Italian War of Independence. Italy was neutral at the start because its alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary was defensive. Many Italians disliked Austria-Hungary holding Italian-speaking areas, so Italy eventually joined the war after the Treaty of London promised land like Friuli, Trentino, and Dalmatia in exchange.

After World War One, Italy gained Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, Zara, and Pola under the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920. Some historians see this as the end of the Risorgimento. However, Italy did not get all the lands promised, such as Dalmatia, leading to feelings of a "mutilated victory." This idea was used by leaders to promote stronger national policies.

During World War Two, after Italy attacked Yugoslavia, it temporarily controlled parts of Dalmatia, including Split and Kotor, as well as Corsica and Nice. This brought Italy closer to its irredentist goals for a short time.

The movement aimed to free all Italian lands still under foreign rule. It focused on areas like Trentino, Trieste, Dalmatia, Istria, Gorizia, Ticino, Nice, Corsica, and Malta. Before World War One, Austria-Hungary supported Croatian interests in Dalmatia and Istria to weaken Italian claims.

End of Italian irredentism

After World War Two, under the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy, areas like Istria, Kvarner, most of the Julian March, and the Dalmatian city of Zara were given to Yugoslavia. Many Italian speakers chose to leave these areas, leading to a large emigration. The Italian irredentist movement ended after World War Two, and Italy abandoned all territorial claims by the 1947 Constitution, which recognized special regions like Sardinia, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sicily, Aosta Valley, and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.

Anniversary of the unification of Italy

Main article: Anniversary of the unification of Italy

Italy celebrates the anniversary of its unification every fifty years on 17 March. This is the day the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed. Celebrations happened in 1911, 1961, 2011, and 2021. Even though it is a working day, 17 March is a special day to honor Italy's identity.

Another important day is National Unity and Armed Forces Day on 4 November. This day marks the end of World War I with the Armistice of Villa Giusti. This event helped complete Italy’s unification.

Culture and Risorgimento

Art

During this time, art was inspired by Neoclassicism. This style looked back to the art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. One famous sculptor was Antonio Canova, known for his marble sculptures. Another important artist was Francesco Hayez. His painting The Kiss showed the spirit of the movement for Italy to become one country. Other artists like Andrea Appiani and Giovanni Fattori also created works that supported this idea.

Literature

Many writers helped spread the idea of uniting Italy. Alessandro Manzoni wrote The Betrothed, a famous book that supported unification. Vittorio Alfieri wrote plays about foreign rule. Ugo Foscolo wrote about love for Italy and its history. Other writers like Vincenzo Monti, Giacomo Leopardi, and Niccolò Tommaseo also helped with their works. After unification, many of these ideas were taught in schools.

Music

Many famous Italian composers supported the unification of Italy through their music. Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini included messages about Italy in their operas. Giuseppe Verdi's music, especially the chorus from Nabucco, became a symbol for Italian patriots. His operas often talked about freedom and love for the country.

Films

Some movies were made about this time in history. The Leopard directed by Luchino Visconti is one famous example. Other films include Piccolo mondo antico, A Garibaldian in the Convent, and We Believed. These films show different parts of this important period in Italian history.

Museums

Central Museum of the Risorgimento of Rome

Inside the Altare della Patria in Rome are some museums about the history of Italy, especially the Unification of Italy: the Central Museum of the Risorgimento with a study institute, the Flag of Italy Memorial and an area for temporary exhibitions called "ala Brasini".

Since 2020, together with Palazzo Venezia, it has been managed by the VIVE Institute, one of the institutes of the Italian Ministry of Culture.

Access to the Central Museum of the Risorgimento is on the left side of the monument, at the back of the Santa Maria in Ara Coeli along via di San Pietro in Carcere. The museum shows items from the end of the 18th century to the First World War, such as memorabilia, paintings, sculptures, documents, drawings, engravings, weapons and prints.

On the entrance stairway of the Central Museum of the Risorgimento are engravings about important events for the birth of the Risorgimento movement, from the French Revolution to the Napoleonic Wars. Along the walls, other engravings show texts by important people about this time in Italian history.

The Central Museum of the Risorgimento also includes the Shrine of the Flags, a museum where the war flags of old military units and ships from the Italian Army, Italian Air Force, Italian Navy, Carabinieri, Polizia di Stato, Penitentiary Police and Guardia di Finanza are kept. If a unit is reformed, the flags go back to them. Access to the shrine is along Via dei Fori Imperiali, where items about the Risorgimento wars are also kept.

The "ala Brasini", for temporary exhibitions, is dedicated to Armando Brasini, who helped start the Central Museum. The wing has three rooms: the "large exhibition hall", the "central hall" and the "jubilee hall".

National Museum of the Risorgimento of Turin

Main article: Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)

The National Museum of the Italian Risorgimento of Turin is the first, biggest and most important of the 23 museums in Italy about the Risorgimento; and the only one considered "national". It is housed in the Palazzo Carignano in Turin.

The museum was established in 1878, shortly after Italian unification, though its first permanent exhibition opened in 1908. Originally in the Mole Antonelliana, in 1938 it moved to its current site.

Its exhibits include weapons, flags, uniforms, documents (including the original manuscript of the song Il Canto degli Italiani), and artworks. The new exhibition, opened in 2011, covers the Risorgimento period from the late 18th century to the start of the First World War. It includes a library, a print cabinet and a documentary archive.

Museum of the Risorgimento of Milan

Main article: Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)

The Museum of the Risorgimento of Milan, in the 18th-century Milanese Palazzo Moriggia, has objects and artworks about the history of Italian unification from Napoleon's Italian campaign of 1796 to the annexation of Rome in 1870. Milan played a key role, especially during the 1848 uprising against the Austrians known as the Five Days of Milan.

The museum was founded from a collection of documents gathered for the Exhibition of Turin in 1884 and moved to Milan’s Public Gardens. It was later moved to the Sforza Castle, and officially opened in 1896. In 1943, due to wartime bombing, it moved temporarily to Casa Manzoni. Finally in 1951 it was housed in the Moriggia Palace, where it stays today.

The museum is part of the Civic Historical Collections. Its collections include works by artists such as Baldassare Verazzi and Francesco Hayez. The permanent exhibition follows the order of Risorgimento events, leading visitors through fifteen rooms, including a new Weapons Room. The latest redesign in 1998 highlighted the best of the collections.

The museum has valuable items such as the cloak and regal insignia of Napoleon Bonaparte, the banner of the Legione Lombarda Cacciatori a Cavallo, and the first Italian flag. Recent changes improved lighting, information systems, and the ‘Romantic Garden’ behind the building.

Museum of the Risorgimento of Bologna

Main article: Museum of the Risorgimento, Bologna

The Civic Museum of the Risorgimento of Bologna is in the ground floor of Casa Carducci, in Piazza Carducci 5, central Bologna.

Before it was a museum, part of the site housed the church of the Madonna della Pietà, known as the Madonna del Piombo. This church burned down in 1712 but was replaced by an oratory in 1752. After the Napoleonic occupation, the oratory was deconsecrated and its contents sold.

A Bolognese Museum of the Risorgimento opened on June 12, 1893. The museum’s exhibits cover history from the Napoleonic invasions to the end of the First World War. The main exhibits are divided into 5 time periods.

The Museum has a library and an archive of items from this time. It also supports the maintenance of the city's monumental cemetery at the Certosa di Bologna.

The museum changed focus over the years. It was closed from 1943 to 1954 and again from 1962 to 1975. Today it focuses on history before Italy entered World War II.

The museum moved to Casa Carducci in 1990. Casa Carducci was the last home of poet Giosuè Carducci, who won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1906.

Tricolour Flag Museum

Main article: Tricolour Flag Museum

The Tricolour Flag Museum is in Reggio nell'Emilia, the city where the Italian flag was first made in 1797, inside the town hall, next to the Sala del Tricolore.

The museum tells the story of the Italian flag, first adopted in Reggio Emilia in the Sala del Tricolore. On 7 January 1797 it became the national flag of the Cispadane Republic. It was inspired by the French flag.

Opened on 7 January 2004, it has documents, relics and flags from the time of Napoleon Bonaparte in Reggio Emilia (1796) to its fall (1814), and from the Italian unification period. The part about unification opened on 7 January 2006. The museum also has many tricolor flags from Italian states before unification.

Maps of Italy before and during Italian unification

Italy changed a lot in the 1800s as it became one country. Maps show Italy in different years, like 1494, 1796, and 1843, before it was united. In 1860, different parts had different rulers, shown in colors: orange for the Kingdom of Sardinia, blue for the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink for the United Provinces of Central Italy, red for the Papal States, and pale green for the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. By 1861, most of Italy was one kingdom, but some parts still had different rulers. In 1870, Rome was captured, and by 1871, Rome became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy. A map from 1919 shows Italy after World War I.