Ancient Rome

This article is about the history of Roman civilisation in ancient times. For the history of the city of Rome, see History of Rome. For other uses, see [Ancient Rome (disambiguation)](/wiki/Ancient_Rome_(disambiguation).

In modern historiography, ancient Rome means the Roman civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It includes the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD), which lasted until the western empire fell.

Ancient Rome began as an Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber in the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and state of Rome. Over time, Rome made agreements with its neighbours and used its army to gain control. Eventually it ruled the whole Italian Peninsula, joining the Greek culture of Magna Graecia (in southern Italy) with the Etruscan culture of north-central Italy. Rome then became the leading power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height, it ruled land along the North African coast, the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas, most of Southern and Western Europe, and much of the Middle East. This included Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia, and Crimea. In AD 117, it was one of the largest empires in the ancient world. It covered around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) and had an estimated 50 to 90 million people, about 20% of the world's population at the time. The Roman state changed from a monarchy where leaders were chosen, to a classical republic, and then to a stricter military dictatorship during the Empire.

Ancient Rome is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece. Their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Roman civilisation has influenced modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome built a professional army and created a system of government called res publica, which inspired modern republics such as the United States and France. Rome also achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as building aqueducts and roads across its empire, along with grand monuments and public facilities.

History

Ancient Rome began as a small village beside the River Tiber. This happened a long time ago, around 753 BC. The village grew into a city that controlled its neighbours through agreements and strength. At first, Rome had kings. Around 509 BC, the Roman Republic was set up, with elected leaders and assemblies. Rome slowly took control of the other peoples of the Italian peninsula. Its biggest rival was Carthage, another great power in the Western Mediterranean. After a series of Punic Wars, Rome became the most powerful state around the Mediterranean Sea.

In the 1st century BC, Rome had political arguments, unrest, and civil wars. Caesar conquered Gaul and gained great power in Rome. After he died in 44 BC, his adopted heir Octavian became the leader of the state. In 27 BC, Octavian took the name Augustus, and historians usually mark this as the start of the Roman Empire. His rule brought a long time of peace known as the Pax Romana. Later, the Crisis of the Third Century brought civil wars and money problems. Diocletian helped bring back order. Constantine later became a Christian and rebuilt the city of Byzantium, which was renamed New Rome. In 476 AD, the rule of the Western Roman Empire came to an end. The Eastern Empire continued for almost 1000 more years.

Society

Rome was the largest city in the empire. It had somewhere between 450,000 and nearly one million people. Many other towns in the empire had forums, temples, and buildings like Rome's. People in the Middle Empire usually lived about 26 to 28 years.

Roman society was divided into classes. At the bottom were slaves, and above them were freedmen. At the top were free-born citizens. Among citizens, the patricians had special status because their families went back to the city's founders. The plebeians did not have this status. Wealth also shaped power. The richest people had the most say in politics and the army. Many of the poorest citizens could not vote. Women had some basic rights, but they could not vote or take part in politics.

The Roman Senate and the assemblies of citizens shared power in the Republic. Over time, the Roman emperor gained more control. Families were led by the oldest male citizen, the pater familias. Boys were usually taught at home by their parents or by educated slaves. Some children went to private schools. Roman law also left a lasting mark. Its ideas influenced later laws in Western Europe.

Main article: Roman law

Main articles: Social class in ancient Rome and Status in Roman legal system

Main article: Education in ancient Rome

Main articles: Roman Constitution and History of the Roman Constitution

Further information: History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship

Main articles: Military history of ancient Rome, Military of ancient Rome, Structural history of the Roman military, Roman army, and Roman navy

Main articles: Roman economy, Roman agriculture, Roman commerce, Roman finance, Roman currency, and Roman metallurgy

Main article: Family in ancient Rome

See also: Roman timekeeping, Roman calendar, and Roman consul § Consular dating

Culture

Main article: Culture of ancient Rome

Life in ancient Rome centred on the city of Rome, which was built on seven hills. The city had many large buildings, including the Colosseum, Trajan's Forum and the Pantheon. It also had theatres, gymnasiums, markets, sewers, and bath complexes with libraries and shops. Fresh water reached its fountains through many miles of aqueducts. Homes ranged from simple houses to country villas. Many ordinary people lived in crowded apartment blocks called insulae, while the emperors had homes on Palatine Hill.

Romans spoke Latin, and many of their customs were shaped by the Greeks they met. Romans worshipped many gods and believed in sacred spirits. Christianity was discouraged at first, but later it became an officially supported religion under Constantine I. Roman art includes many frescoes, and Roman writers wrote poems, histories, and plays. Ordinary Romans often ate in taverns and enjoyed games. The Colosseum was built in 70 AD and opened in 80 AD for gladiator fights and other events. Chariot racing was very popular, and the Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 people.

Technology

Main article: Ancient Roman technology

Ancient Rome had impressive technology. Many of its skills were lost in the Middle Ages and were not matched again until the 19th and 20th centuries. For example, insulated glazing was not invented again until the 1930s. Many useful Roman ideas came from earlier Greek designs, and craftspeople often kept their methods as trade secrets. Roman civil engineering and military engineering helped Rome build hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, public baths, theatres and arenas. Famous buildings such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard and Pantheon still show Roman skill. Roman architecture is grouped with Greek traditions as "Classical architecture", though Rome also borrowed a lot from Greek architecture. Rome added the composite and Tuscan orders of columns and the dome, which came from the Etruscan arch. From the 1st century BC, Romans widely used Roman concrete. It had been invented in the late 3rd century BC and was made from pozzolana. It replaced marble as the main building material. Vitruvius also wrote De architectura in the 1st century BC, possibly the first complete book on architecture. Romans also used a lot of timber for building, which quickly shrank the woodlands around Rome. Wood planks even travelled from the Jura mountains in France, floating along the Saône and Rhône rivers to what is now Lyon in France.

Roman roads were known for being strong and well built. Many parts were still in use a thousand years after Rome fell. These Roman roads let Roman legions move quickly and helped make Rome a centre of trade, which is why people say "all roads lead to Rome". The government ran way stations called the cursus publicus. Romans built many aqueducts to bring water to cities. By the third century, Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts. Romans were famous for their public baths, called thermae, and many homes had flush toilets and indoor plumbing. The sewer system called the Cloaca Maxima drained local marshes and carried waste into the Tiber. Some historians have suggested that lead pipes may have led to lead poisoning, which may have contributed to the fall of Rome. However, the amount of lead would have been kept low.

Legacy

Main articles: Legacy of the Roman Empire and Classics

Ancient Rome is the starting point of Western civilisation. Many parts of Western life come from Roman ideas and inventions. These include customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, and government.

When people rediscovered Roman culture, it brought new life to Western civilisation. It played a part in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

Historiography

Main article: Roman historiography

Two of the longest ancient accounts of Roman history were written by Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. They were written about 500 years after Rome became a republic. Many other works about ancient Roman history have been lost, so some parts of the story are missing. Some of these missing parts are filled by sources that cannot always be trusted, such as the Historia Augusta. Julius Caesar wrote about his army's battles in Gaul and in the Civil War. He wrote partly to make people of his own time admire him. In the Roman Empire, books about famous men and early emperors became popular. Two well-known examples are Suetonius's The Twelve Caesars and Plutarch's Parallel Lives.

People became more interested in studying and admiring ancient Rome during the Italian Renaissance. Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire "began the modern study of Roman history in the English-speaking world." Barthold Georg Niebuhr helped start the study of ancient Roman history. His work covered the period up to the First Punic War. Later, Theodor Mommsen wrote works such as History of Rome, which became important milestones.