Ancient Near East

The ancient Near East was home to many cradles of civilization, spanning Mesopotamia, the Levant, Egypt, Iran, Anatolia and the Armenian highlands, and the Arabian Peninsula. This area is very important for learning about ancient history because it includes some of the earliest places where people lived together in large groups and built up rich cultures.

The history of the ancient Near East begins with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. During this time, people first began to farm all year round, which helped them live in bigger towns and cities. They also created the first writing system, the first alphabet, and the first legal codes. These inventions were very important because they helped people keep records, share ideas, and make fair rules.

As time went on, many small groups grew into larger states. These states often took over the lands of their neighbors, until big militaristic empires ruled the whole region. These empires brought together many different cultures under one government, shaping the way the world would look for thousands of years.

The concept of the Near East

Main article: Near East

The phrase "ancient Near East" came from the 19th century to help describe parts of the world that were important to the British Empire. It started during the Crimean War. Back then, leaders of the British Empire used the words "the Near East" and "the Far East" to talk about different areas.

After the Ottoman Empire ended, people used the term "Near East" less often and started using "Middle East" more. The ancient Near East talked about lands from Vienna in the north to the Arabian Peninsula in the south, and from Egypt in the west to the borders of Iraq in the east. In the 19th century, scientists also included Iran when they talked about the ancient Near East, even though it was never part of the Ottoman Empire. They did not include Europe or most of Egypt.

Periodization

Ancient Near East periodization is a way to sort time into clear parts or ages for the Near East. This helps us understand different times in history that share similar features.

Background: prehistory

Further information: History of the Middle East and Timeline of Middle Eastern history

• Paleolithic
• Epipalaeolithic Near East
  • Kebaran culture
  • Natufian culture
• Neolithic in the Near East
  • Pre-pottery Neolithic A
  • Pre-pottery Neolithic B
  • Pre-pottery Neolithic C
  • Pottery Neolithic

Chalcolithic

See also: Levantine Chalcolithic

Early Mesopotamia

The Uruk period (around 4000 to 3100 BC) was a time in the early days of towns and cities in Mesopotamia. It came after the Ubaid period and before the Bronze Age. This period got its name from the city of Uruk. During this time, people began to write using a special set of symbols called cuneiform.

History

For a chronological guide, see Chronology of the ancient Near East.

Bronze Age

Further information: Short chronology timeline

Early Bronze Age

Sumer and Akkad

Sumer was home to many early advances in history, such as schools around 3000 BC, making it a place where civilization began. The oldest excavated site in Sumer, Tell el-'Oueili, dates back to the 7th millennium BC. The area saw the rise of the Ubaid period, followed by the Uruk period and the Early Dynastic periods. The Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon the Great, lasted from the 24th to the 21st century BC and is often considered the world’s first empire. The Akkadians later split into Assyria and Babylonia.

Elam

Ancient Elam was located east of Sumer and Akkad, in modern-day Iran. It consisted of kingdoms centered on Anshan and later Susa. Elam was eventually absorbed into the Assyrian Empire but lasted until 539 BC when it was overrun by the Persians. The Proto-Elamite civilization existed from around 3200 BC to 2700 BC and was contemporary with Sumer.

The Amorites

The Amorites were a nomadic Semitic people who lived west of the Euphrates from the 3rd millennium BC. They later settled in Mesopotamia and ruled places like Isin and Larsa, and eventually Babylon.

Middle Bronze Age

Assyria became a major power from 1365 BC after the rule of Ashur-uballit I, rivaling Egypt and controlling much of the near east. Babylonia, founded by Amorite tribes, was ruled by the Kassites for many years and often found itself under Assyrian or Elamite control. The Hittite Empire was a major power in Asia Minor and the Levant until 1200 BC.

Late Bronze Age

The Hurrians lived in northern Mesopotamia and areas to the east and west, beginning around 2500 BC. They established small kingdoms and were influential in the history of the Hittites. Ishua was an ancient kingdom in Anatolia where agriculture developed early. The kingdom of Kizzuwatna was located in southeastern Anatolia near the Gulf of İskenderun.

Luwian was an ancient language spoken in Anatolia and parts of Syria after the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC. Mari was an ancient city located near modern-day Abu Kamal in Syria, flourishing from 2900 BC until 1759 BC.

Mitanni was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from around 1600 BC, centered on the capital Washukanni. The Aramaeans were a Semitic people who lived in upper Mesopotamia and Syria and later spread their language and culture across the Near East.

The term "Sea peoples" refers to seafaring groups who caused unrest in the Mediterranean during the late 19th dynasty and especially during the time of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty. They are mentioned in Egyptian records as "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples') of the sea."

Bronze Age Collapse

The transition from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age was marked by the collapse of many major civilizations, including the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire, and the Egyptian Empire. Cities were destroyed, trade declined, and many areas experienced a period of smaller, isolated villages. This collapse occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC.

Iron Age

During the Early Iron Age, the Neo-Assyrian Empire rose to power, becoming a vast empire under leaders like Tiglath-Pileser III. The empire conquered large areas including Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia Minor and ancient Iran.

The Neo-Hittite kingdoms were political entities in northern Syria and southern Anatolia that emerged after the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC. These included Luwian, Aramaic, and Phoenician-speaking groups.

Urartu was an ancient kingdom in Armenia and northern Mesopotamia, existing from around 860 BC until 585 BC. It was centered around Lake Van in what is now eastern Turkey.

Two Israelite kingdoms, Israel and Judah, emerged in the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. The northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BC, while the southern Kingdom of Judah lasted longer but was eventually destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BC.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th dynasty from 623 BC until the invasion by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. This period included the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, who conquered Judah and exiled many of its people.

The Achaemenid Empire was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over most of the Near East and beyond. At its height, it was the largest empire of classical antiquity, spanning three continents and including territories from the Balkans to Libya and Central Asia.

In 116–117 AD, much of the ancient Near East was briefly united under the rule of the Roman Empire under Trajan.