Phoenicia

The Phoenicians were an ancient Semitic people who lived in city-states along the Levantine coast of the eastern Mediterranean, mainly in what is now Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria. They were excellent sailors and traders, and their cities, such as Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre, became important centers for commerce. Through their voyages, they connected many parts of the world, bringing goods, ideas, and cultures together.

The Phoenicians were known for their skill in building ships and navigating the seas. They set up colonies and trading posts from Cyprus all the way to the Iberian Peninsula. One of their most famous colonies was Carthage in the Mediterranean Maghreb, which later grew into a powerful city itself.

Even though the Phoenician cities were independent and did not share a single national identity, they shared many cultural traditions. They are especially remembered for creating one of the earliest known alphabets. This writing system influenced many others, including the Greek alphabet, which later led to the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Their contributions to trade, ship-building, and other areas helped shape the development of ancient Mediterranean civilizations.

Etymology

The Phoenicians were made up of many independent cities, so they didn’t have one name for their whole land. People often used the name of their city, like "Sidonian" for someone from Sidon or "Tyrian" for someone from Tyre. They might have called themselves "Canaanites," but there is no proof they thought of themselves as one group called "Phoenicians."

Ancient Egyptian writings mentioned a “land of carpenters,” which many believe refers to Phoenicia because the Phoenicians were famous for trading wood. This Egyptian word turned into the Greek word phoînix, which could mean a Phoenician person, a special red dye called Tyrian purple, or even a date palm. The Greeks used this word, and it later became the Latin word Poenī, which is where the name “Phoenicians” comes from.

History

We know about the Phoenicians mostly from other ancient writings and what archaeologists have found. They were most powerful between 1200 BC and 332 BC.

It is not fully known if the Phoenicians were the same as the Canaanites, a larger group of people in the area. Some experts think they were the same, while others believe the Phoenicians developed their own special culture in cities along the coast.

The Phoenicians started in a time called the Early Bronze Age, with important places like Byblos and Sidon. The Middle Bronze Age was peaceful and good for trade. Later, big empires like Egypt and the Hittites influenced the Phoenician cities.

Origins

Main articles: Canaan, Retjenu, and Prehistory of the Levant

The Phoenicians grew from an older culture called the Ghassulian. This culture came from mixing different groups and led to farming and raising animals. The city of Ugarit was part of this time but had its own language.

Ancient writers like Herodotus and Strabo said the Phoenicians came from far away, but most experts today think they have always lived in the same area.

Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

We first hear about the Phoenicians from the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who fought them. The Phoenician cities were important because they were good at trade and had valuable wood. By the 14th century BC, cities like Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were very important to Egypt.

Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)

After a big problem called the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Phoenicians survived. By 1230 BC, cities like Tyre and Sidon were free and rich. They started exploring and setting up new places all around the Mediterranean Sea, from Cyprus to Spain.

Tyre became the most powerful city, especially under King Hiram I. Phoenician workers helped build important places in Israel. Under King Ithobaal, Tyre grew even more and claimed lands up to Cyprus.

Foundation of Carthage

Main articles: Carthage, Ancient Carthage, History of Carthage, and Punic Wars

The Phoenicians from Tyre started the city of Carthage, meaning “New City.” Some stories say it was founded around 1215 BC, but most historians think it was started in 814 BC. Carthage grew into a big empire but was later destroyed by Rome.

Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

The Phoenician cities were small and could not have big armies, so they were often ruled by bigger empires like the Assyrians and Babylonians. The Assyrians took control little by little, and later the Babylonians took over.

Persian period (539–332 BC)

Main article: Achaemenid Phoenicia

In 539 BC, the Persian king Cyrus the Great took control. The Phoenicians agreed to join the Persian Empire and paid taxes but were allowed to keep their own kings and ways of life. They were very helpful to the Persians, especially with their skills in sailing and building ships.

Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)

Phoenicia was one of the first places conquered by Alexander the Great. After a long siege, Tyre gave in. Alexander’s empire spread Greek culture, but in Phoenicia, the cities kept most of their own names and traditions. Later, the Phoenicians were ruled by the Seleucids and sometimes by the Ptolemies of Egypt.

Demographics

The Phoenicians were an ancient group of people who lived in a region called the Levant, which includes parts of modern-day Lebanon and Syria. They were part of a larger group known as Semitic-speaking peoples. Although we call them Phoenicians today, they did not use that name themselves. Instead, they identified by their home cities or families.

Researchers have studied the DNA of modern and ancient people to learn more about the Phoenicians. These studies show that people living in Lebanon today share much of their DNA with ancient peoples called Canaanites. The Phoenicians were also part of a mix of different groups, including people from Europe and Asia, especially during later times. Their influence spread across the Mediterranean, and their descendants can be found in places like Sicily and Spain.

Economy

Trade

See also: Phoenicians and wine

The Phoenicians helped connect many different cultures around the Mediterranean and Near East by trading goods and sharing ideas. Their trade networks brought together many lands and helped create a shared culture that later influenced the Greeks and Romans.

The Phoenicians traded with the Greeks, beginning with the Minoan people on Crete and later the Mycenaean people. They sold cedar wood and wine to Egypt, getting gold in return. They also traded for silver from places like Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula, and tin from places such as Galicia, Cornwall, or Brittany.

Industry

Phoenicia did not have many natural resources except for cedar wood. They became skilled at making many useful items, including glass, metalwork, ivory carvings, and wooden products.

The Phoenicians made glass items like flasks and beads, and they created beautiful metalwork. They also made special goods for wealthy people, such as carved ivory and painted ostrich eggs.

Tyrian purple

One of the most famous Phoenician products was fabric dyed with a special purple color called Tyrian purple. This dye came from a type of sea snail and was very expensive. Because of this, only rich people could afford clothing made with this dye.

Mining

Mining in Phoenicia was limited, but they mined copper in Cyprus and other metals in places like Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula.

Agriculture

Phoenicia had some farming, but they often needed more food than they could grow. They grew wine, which they shared with other lands. They also set up vineyards in places like Morocco, Tunisia, Sicily, France, and Spain.

Shipbuilding

The Phoenicians built strong ships using special joinery techniques. They may have been the first to create ships with two rows of oars and later ships with three rows of oars. They also invented the amphora, a container used for storing goods, and built special harbors to protect their ships.

Important cities and colonies

Main article: List of Phoenician cities

The Phoenicians were not one big country but a group of independent cities that shared the same language and culture. The most important cities were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Although they sometimes argued, they rarely fought each other.

There were many other cities along the coast, including Beiruta (now Beirut), Baalbek, and Tripolis. Starting around the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians set up trading places all around the Mediterranean Sea. They created settlements in places like Cyprus, Sardinia, and Iberia. Later, they went even farther, reaching places beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, including parts of the Atlantic coast of Iberia. They may have even reached as far as the Canary Islands and the British Isles. Most of their settlements were small, with only a few hundred people, except for places like Carthage and Tangier, which grew much larger.

See also: Phoenician settlement of North Africa

To help with their trading, the Phoenicians set up many small colonies and trading spots along the Mediterranean coasts. They did not usually want to take over large areas, and most settlements had fewer than 1,000 people. One big reason they set up these colonies was because of competition with the Greeks, who were also expanding around the same time. Even though they were rivals, their settlements sometimes clashed, especially in places like Crete and Sicily.

The first Phoenician settlements outside their homeland were on Cyprus and Crete. Later, they moved west to places like Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as along the coast of the Maghreb and Iberia, including Tangier and Málaga. Tyre was the leader in setting up these colonies.

Phoenician colonies were mostly independent. They sometimes sent a small amount of goods each year to their home city as a kind of gift. But in the seventh century BC, the colonies in the west came under the control of Carthage, which ruled them through special leaders. Even after becoming independent, Carthage still sent gifts to Tyre for a while.

Society and culture

Because very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians lived in city-states along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in areas that are now part of Lebanon and Syria. They were similar in their way of life, work, beliefs, and the things they made.

The Phoenician city-states were highly independent and often competed with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the most powerful city.

At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly organized and predominantly monarchical. Kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the priesthood was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family.

Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.

Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power. In the sixth century BC, during the period of Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the Roman consul, known as sufetes (shophets), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.

After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.

The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.

As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies.

As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful. The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. Each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.

The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo.

Around 1050 BC, the Phoenicians developed a script for writing their own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus strictly an abjad). It is believed to be a continuation of the Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the Late Bronze Age. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe. The name Phoenician is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before that time. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but via the drawn out process of long-term commercial exchange. According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary at Eretria is considered one of the places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet. The legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete, whence it gradually diffused northwards.

Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most reflected in bronze and ivory work.

Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of Bronze Age conventions well into the Iron Age, such as terracotta masks. Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles. In the Old Testament, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC". The Iliad mentions the embroidered robes of Priam's wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of chased silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship". The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.

Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests. They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.

Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music. In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states. At least one woman, Amoashtart, or Ummiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the sixth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: Jezebel, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and Dido, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage.

Religion

Main article: Canaanite religion

See also: Sanchuniathon

The Phoenicians shared many religious beliefs and practices with their neighbors in Canaan, which were part of the larger ancient Semitic world. Their religious rites often served the needs of their city-states, with payments from citizens sometimes seen as offerings to the gods. Unfortunately, many of their sacred writings have been lost over time.

Their gods included El, the supreme god, and his son Baal, a powerful thunder god. Other important gods had titles like "king of the city" or "lord." The Phoenicians built temples and made offerings such as figurines and pottery to honor their gods. These offerings have been found in many places across the Mediterranean, showing how far their trade and influence reached. Special groups called marzeh helped bring people together through shared meals and festivals, strengthening community bonds.