Arapaho

The Arapaho are a Native American people who originally lived on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They had a close relationship with the Cheyenne tribe and were also loosely allied with the Lakota and Dakota.

By the 1850s, the Arapaho bands split into two groups: the Northern Arapaho and the Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived together with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. They are recognized by the government as the Northern Arapaho Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, and together they are known as the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

Names

The name Arapaho might have come from the Pawnee word for "trader" or from a Crow word for "tattoo." The Arapaho call themselves Hinono'eino or Inun-ina, meaning "our people."

Different tribes had their own names for the Arapaho. For example, the Cheyenne called them "People of the Sky," while the Dakota called them "Blue Cloud Men." Some other tribes called them names that meant "dog-eaters." The Northern and Southern Arapaho had special names for each other too.

Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands

The Arapaho people recognize five main groups, each speaking a different version of their language. These groups were originally separate but related tribes. They often worked together as allies but kept their own identities.

Each group spoke dialects that were similar but not exactly the same. The Haa'ninin, Beesowuunenno', and Hinono'eino were closely related in language. Arapaho elders said that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the hardest to understand.

In a study, Alfred Kroeber identified these five groups from south to north:

• Nanwacinaha'ana, Nawathi'neha or Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno' ("Southern People"). Their dialect was very different from the others.
• Hánahawuuena ("Rock Men" or "Rock People"), living north of the Nanwacinaha'ana, spoke their own dialect.
• Hinono'eino or Hinanae'inan ("Arapaho proper") spoke the Arapaho language.
• Beesowuunenno', also called Baasanwuune'nan or Bäsawunena ("Big Lodge People"), lived north of the Hinono'eino. They used brush shelters for war parties. They spoke the Besawunena dialect.
• Haa'ninin, A'aninin or A'ani ("White Clay People"), the northernmost group, known to the French as the Gros Ventre. They spoke the Gros Ventre language dialect.

Before becoming united, each group had its own leader. The Hinono'eino and Beesowuunenno' fought over sacred items like the pipe and lance. By the late 1700s, the groups south of the Haa'ninin joined together to become the Arapaho. Only the Arapaho and Gros Ventre stayed separate.

While living on the Great Plains, the Hinono'eino split into two groups:

• Northern Arapaho or Nank'haanseine'nan ("Sagebrush People"). They kept the sacred tribal items and are seen as the main Arapaho group.
• Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno' ("Southern People"). They are known by a different name by the Northern Arapaho.

Language

The Arapaho language has two main dialects and is part of the Algonquian language family. Only about 250 people speak the Northern Arapaho dialect, most living on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. Very few people speak the Southern Arapaho dialect, and they are mostly older.

The Northern Arapaho have worked hard to keep their language alive. They created a Language and Culture Commission and made audio and video materials to help young people learn. They also started a language preschool and teach the language in schools. Many people want to keep the language alive, though some find it hard to learn fully.

For the Southern Arapaho, keeping the language has been harder. Not many people were interested in learning it, but recently, a few have started online video classes to try to bring interest back.

Histories

Early history

The Arapaho people originally lived near the Great Lakes in what is now Canada and the United States. They grew crops like maize and lived as farmers. After European settlers arrived, the Arapaho, along with the Cheyenne, were pushed westward to the Great Plains. They became skilled at using horses, which helped them travel and hunt more effectively.

Expansion on the plains

The Arapaho formed strong alliances, especially with the Cheyenne, which allowed them to expand their territory. They traded with other tribes and European traders, exchanging hides and furs for goods. The Arapaho were known for their trading skills and were respected on the plains.

Enemies and warrior culture

Arapaho society valued warriors, and young men often took on this role. Warriors were responsible for protecting the camp, providing for their families, and maintaining peace. They were skilled horsemen and fighters. Each warrior had unique designs for face and body paint, and they wore feathers in battle for spiritual strength.

Sand Creek Massacre

In 1864, a group of Cheyenne and Arapaho people were attacked by Colorado militia led by Colonel John Chivington. The attack happened at Sand Creek, and many people, including women and children, were killed. This event caused great sadness and led to years of conflict between the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and the United States.

Indian Wars on the Southern Plains

After the Sand Creek Massacre, the Arapaho and Cheyenne fought against the United States for many years. These conflicts are often called the Colorado War. Battles took place in Colorado, Kansas, and Texas. The Arapaho, along with their allies, fought to protect their land and way of life.

Powder River Expedition

Following the Sand Creek Massacre, the Northern Arapaho moved to areas in Wyoming and Montana. There were battles with US soldiers, including the Battle of the Tongue River, where many Arapaho people, mostly women and children, were killed. The Arapaho continued to resist these attacks.

Red Cloud's War

Red Cloud's War was fought between the United States and the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho from 1866 to 1868. The war began because of increased settlement and mining in areas the tribes considered their own. The most famous battle was the Fetterman Fight, where a small group of US soldiers was defeated by the allied tribes. The war ended with a treaty that allowed the tribes to control certain lands.

Great Sioux War of 1876–77

The Great Sioux War began when settlers moved into areas like the Black Hills, which were sacred to the Lakota and important to the Arapaho. The war included the famous Battle of the Little Bighorn, where a group of Arapaho warriors fought alongside the Lakota and Cheyenne against the US Army. Though few in number, the Arapaho played a part in this important battle.

Culture

The Arapaho people share a creation story with the Algonquian people. In this story, a being named Flat Pipe lived alone on water. The Great Spirit told Flat Pipe to create life. Flat Pipe thought of ducks and other birds, but they could not find land. Then Flat Pipe created a turtle, which dove and brought up land that grew into the earth. Flat Pipe then created people and animals to fill the world.

In traditional Arapaho life, men were hunters, especially after horses were introduced and they hunted buffalo for food. Women, along with people known as Two Spirits, were responsible for preparing food and making clothing and other items from animal hides. The Arapaho have always respected people of all genders, including those known today as Two Spirit or third gender.

Traditionally, women and Two Spirits wore long dresses made from animal skin, decorated with beads and other natural materials. Men wore shorter clothing made from animal skin, and sometimes added necklaces for special occasions. Many of these traditional clothing styles are still worn today during celebrations.

Economic development

In July 2005, the Northern Arapaho people won a court case against the State of Wyoming. This allowed them to start the casino or gambling industry there. They opened the first casinos in Wyoming and now run several places where people can gamble, including the Wind River Casino and the Little Wind Casino.

The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes also operate four casinos in Oklahoma. These are located in Clinton, Watonga, Canton, and Hammon.

Notable Arapahos

Here are some important Arapaho people:

• Margaret Behan (born 1948), an Arapaho-Cheyenne spiritual elder.
• William "Hawk" Birdshead was a kind person who helped others and worked with the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma.
• Sherman Coolidge (1862–1932) was a minister and teacher in the Wind River community. He helped start a group called the Society of American Indians.
• Mirac Creepingbear (1947–1990) was an artist who painted beautiful pictures.
• Viola Hatch (1930-2019) worked hard to help her community.
• Juanita L. Learned (1930-1996) was the first woman to lead the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma.
• Chief Little Raven (c. 1810–1889) helped make peace between different tribes and got land for the Cheyenne–Arapaho Reservation in Indian Territory.
• Chief Niwot (c. 1825 – 1864) led a group of people in Northern Colorado.
• Pretty Nose (c. 1851 – after 1952) was a leader who fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
• Carl Sweezy (1881–1953) was one of the first Native American artists to show his paintings professionally.

Population history

Before the 1800s, we don’t know exactly how many Arapaho people lived. In 1812, one person thought there were about 15,250 Arapaho. By 1880, the number dropped to around 3,045, but by 2020, their population had grown to 12,192.