Native Americans in the United States

Native Americans are the Indigenous peoples of the United States, especially in the lower 48 states and Alaska. They include anyone whose origins are from the original peoples of North or South America. Today, there are over five million Native Americans in the U.S., and most live outside of reservations. Some states with large Native American populations are Alaska, Oklahoma, Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas.

When Europeans first arrived in the Americas in 1492, many Native American populations faced big changes. Diseases, wars, and unfair treatments caused their numbers to drop sharply. For many years, the U.S. government treated Native American tribes as separate nations, signing treaties with them. But laws changed over time, and Native Americans were eventually granted U.S. citizenship in 1924.

Even today, Native American communities continue to work toward self-determination and better lives. Many have made progress, but there are still challenges that they face.

History

Main articles: History of Native Americans in the United States and Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The history of Native Americans in the United States began tens of thousands of years ago when the first people arrived in the Americas. They traveled across a land bridge called Beringia between Siberia and Alaska. Over time, these early people spread throughout North America, developing many different cultures and ways of life.

By the time Europeans arrived, Native American societies had complex social structures and trade networks. Unfortunately, contact with Europeans brought new diseases that many Native Americans had never faced before, causing many deaths. Later, policies and actions by the United States government led to the forced relocation of many Native American tribes, such as the famous Trail of Tears.

In more recent times, Native Americans have fought for their rights and worked to preserve their cultures and traditions. Today, many Native Americans live in cities, and they continue to work toward equality and recognition of their unique place in American society.

Demographics

Further information: Modern social statistics of Native Americans

See also: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The 2020 census counted 331.4 million people in the United States. Of these, 3.7 million, or about 1.1%, reported being American Indian or Alaska Native alone. An additional 5.9 million people, or 1.8%, reported being American Indian or Alaska Native together with one or more other races.

The U.S. Census Bureau defines American Indian or Alaska Native as anyone with origins in the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) who maintains a connection to a tribal community.

This group includes many different peoples, such as the Maya, Mexican Indigenous peoples, and Canadian First Nations. In 2022, many Americans identified with Central American Indigenous groups, Mexican Indigenous groups, or Canadian First Nations.

Among those who identify as American Indian or Alaska Native alone, the largest groups include the Cherokee, Navajo, Choctaw, Blackfeet, Sioux, and Apache. Around 205,954 people identified specifically as Alaska Native.

Native Hawaiians are counted separately as Pacific Islanders.

The census has allowed people to choose more than one race since 2000. Before 1960, census workers decided a person's race instead of the person themselves.

American Indians and Alaska Natives made up a small part of the U.S. population between 1880 and 2020:

The total number of American Indians and Alaska Natives from 1880 to 2020 is shown here:

Most Native Americans—about 78%—live outside of reservations. Those who report only one race are more likely to live on a reservation than those who report more than one race.

The Navajo tribe has the most people who report only one race, with 86.3% of its members being mono-racial. The Cherokee tribe is the largest overall, but many of its members also report other races.

By 2012, about 70% of Native Americans lived in cities, up from 45% in 1970 and just 8% in 1940. Cities with large Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. Many face challenges such as poverty, unemployment, and other difficulties. Organizations like the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis work to help.

Tribal sovereignty

Main articles: Tribal sovereignty in the United States, Native American tribe, and Indian reservation

In the United States, there are 574 groups officially recognized by the government and 326 special lands called reservations. These groups have the right to create their own rules and leaders, and to make their own decisions about who can join and what happens within their lands. However, like all states, they cannot declare war, make treaties with other countries, or create their own money.

Some people feel that the government does not always treat these groups as fully independent. They believe the government should work with these groups through special leaders, not through a government office that handles their affairs. This office looks after millions of acres of land that belong to these groups, but some feel this land should be managed only by the tribes themselves.

Being officially recognized by the government is important because it gives tribes certain rights, like selling crafts labeled as Native American-made and applying for special funds. However, proving they have existed continuously since 1900 can be very hard for some tribes.

Some states have tried to end the special status of tribes, and there have been debates about who can be a member of a tribe. In Maine, representatives from tribes can help make laws about Native American issues. In Virginia, tribes were not officially recognized by the federal government for many years, partly because of old rules about race and mixed heritage.

The largest Native American groups in the United States include the Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Sioux, Ojibwe, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo. Many Native Americans are concerned about others trying to take control of their lands for valuable resources like coal and uranium.

Civil rights movement

Main articles: Civil rights movement, Jim Crow Laws, Martin Luther King Jr., National Congress of American Indians, National Indian Youth Council, Native American Rights Fund, and Brown v. Board of Education

The civil rights movement was important for Native Americans and other people of color. For many years, Native Americans faced unfair treatment and were not treated equally. After the American Civil War, rules called Jim Crow Laws made it hard for Native Americans to get good education, jobs, and fair treatment. These rules were especially strong in the Deep South.

Native Americans joined the civil rights movement, inspired by leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. They worked together to fight for equal rights. Groups like the National Indian Youth Council were formed to support Native American rights. Many Native Americans took part in big events, such as the March on Washington in 1963. They continued to speak up for fairness and equality, asking for better schools, jobs, and homes in their communities.

Contemporary issues

Main article: Contemporary Native American issues in the United States

Native American communities face many challenges, including health issues linked to living conditions and nutrition. These challenges have led to higher rates of certain health conditions in these populations.

Native Americans have faced discrimination for a long time. This discrimination continues to affect their lives and opportunities in many ways. Many people still hold old, harmful views about Native American cultures and traditions.

Societal discrimination and racism

Further information: Stereotypes of Native Americans and Racism against Native Americans in the United States

Discrimination against Native Americans remains a significant issue. Many non-Native Americans have limited interaction with Native communities, partly because of historical changes that moved many Native people to reservations. This lack of contact contributes to misunderstandings and ongoing prejudice.

Native American mascots

Main article: Native American mascot controversy

Further information: NCAA Native American mascot decision

Many people object to the use of Native American themes in sports mascots, saying it perpetuates harmful stereotypes. There has been a movement to change these mascots, and some teams have responded by updating their names and logos. For example, some teams have changed names that were once considered offensive.

Historical depictions in art

Native Americans have been shown in art and media in many different ways over time. Early artists and filmmakers often used non-Native people to portray Native characters, which did not accurately reflect their cultures. More recent works have started to include Native actors and tell stories from Native perspectives.

Differences in terminology

Further information: Native American name controversy

The way people refer to Native Americans has changed over time. Terms like "Indian" and "Native American" are both used today, and different groups may prefer one term over another. These changes reflect evolving understandings and respect for Native identities.

Colonial ecological violence

The taking of Native lands by settlers has had lasting effects on Native communities and their relationship with the environment. These actions have disrupted traditional ways of life and caused ongoing challenges for many tribes.

Gambling industry

Main article: Native American gaming

Because of their special status, some Native American tribes operate casinos and other gaming facilities. This has provided economic opportunities for many communities, though it remains a complex issue with varying impacts.

Crime on reservations

Historically, serious crimes on reservations have been handled by federal authorities. Recent years have seen increases in certain types of crime in some areas, highlighting ongoing challenges in these communities.

Barriers to economic development

Many Native American communities face difficulties in building strong economies. Factors such as location, access to resources, and educational opportunities play a role in these challenges. Efforts continue to find ways to support economic growth that respects cultural values.

Land ownership challenges

Land ownership for Native Americans can be complicated by historical and legal issues. These challenges sometimes make it hard to use land for development or building homes. Different views on land ownership between Native traditions and modern systems also create obstacles.

Trauma

Historical events have caused deep emotional wounds that affect Native American communities today. These experiences continue to influence health and well-being across generations.

Food insecurity

Studies show that Native American households often face challenges in getting enough food. Factors like cost, job availability, and health issues contribute to these problems. Efforts are underway to address food insecurity and support better nutrition in these communities.

Society, language, and culture

Main article: Native American cultures in the United States

Further information: Category:Archaeological cultures of North America

The culture of Native American peoples is rich and varied. Different groups had their own ways of life, but they often shared common traditions. Many Native American societies were organized around clans, and they lived in close-knit communities.

When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they brought many changes. New foods, animals, and ideas were shared between the two groups, but this also led to conflicts and challenges for Native American ways of life. The introduction of new animals like horses greatly changed how some groups lived, especially on the Great Plains.

Ethno-linguistic classification

Main article: Indigenous languages of the Americas

See also: American Indian English

Native American languages belong to several different language families. Some of the largest families include Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan. These languages are spoken across North America, from Alaska to Mexico. Efforts are being made to teach and preserve these languages in schools and communities.

Language education

See also: Massachusett language § Current status

Some tribes have started language immersion schools to teach children their traditional languages. For example, the Cherokee Nation has programs to help young people become fluent speakers of the Cherokee language. These efforts aim to keep Native languages alive for future generations.

Indigenous foodways

Further information: Indigenous cuisine of the Americas, Inuit cuisine, and Eastern Agricultural Complex

Native American diets varied greatly depending on where people lived. Some groups relied on fishing and hunting, while others grew crops like corn, beans, and squash. These foods were prepared in many different ways to suit the local environment and resources.

Religion

Main article: Native American religions

Native American spiritual beliefs and practices differ among tribes, but many include ceremonies and rituals that connect people to their land and ancestors. Some tribes use sacred plants in their ceremonies, and many have traditions of singing, drumming, and fasting.

Gender roles

Main articles: Gender roles among the Indigenous peoples of North America, Clan Mother, Matriarchy, Matrilineality, and Two-Spirit

In many Native American tribes, gender roles were defined in traditional ways, but these varied widely. Some tribes had matrilineal systems where family and leadership passed through the mother’s line, while others followed patrilineal traditions. Women often played key roles in community life, including caring for families and managing resources.

Modern education

As of 2020 90% of Native American school-aged children attend public schools operated by school districts. Tribally-operated schools under contracts/grants with the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) and direct BIE-operated schools take about 8% of Native American students, including students who live in very rural remote areas.

Sports

Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Jim Thorpe, Lewis Tewanima, Joe Hipp, Notah Begay III, Chris Wondolowski, Jacoby Ellsbury, Joba Chamberlain, Kyle Lohse, Sam Bradford, Jack Brisco, Tommy Morrison, Billy Mills, Angel Goodrich, Shoni Schimmel, and Kyrie Irving are well known professional athletes.

Team sports

Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than war, as a civil way to settle conflict. The Choctaw called it isitoboli ("Little Brother of War"); the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.

The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) and prevent the opposing team from scoring. The game involves 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions, or protective gear. The goals could be from around 200 feet (61 m) apart to about 2 miles (3.2 km); in lacrosse the field is 110 yards (100 m).

Individual sports

Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone-shaped disk about 1–2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a 200-foot (61 m) corridor so it could roll past the players at great speed. Players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.

U.S. Olympics

Jim Thorpe, a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-around athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw."

In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe ran the 100-yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds. He long jumped 23 ft 6 in and high-jumped 6 ft 5 in. He pole vaulted 11 feet (3.4 m), put the shot 47 ft 9 in (14.55 m), throw the javelin 163 feet (50 m), and the discus 136 feet (41 m). Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon.

Louis Tewanima, Hopi people, was an American two-time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10,000-meters in 1912. He ran for the Carlisle Indian School where he was a teammate of Thorpe. His silver in 1912 remained the best US achievement in this event until another Indian, Billy Mills, won gold in 1964. Tewanima competed at the 1908 Olympics, where he finished 9th in the marathon.

Ellison Brown, of the Narragansett people from Rhode Island, won two Boston Marathons (1936, 1939) and competed in the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, but did not finish due to injury. He qualified for the 1940 Olympic Games in Helsinki, but the games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II.

Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won gold in the 10,000-meters at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only American ever to win the gold in this event.

Billy Kidd, part Abenaki from Vermont, became the first American man to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver in the slalom in the 1964 Winter Olympics at Innsbruck, Austria. Six years later at the 1970 World Championships, Kidd won gold in the combined event and bronze in the slalom.

Ashton Locklear (Lumbee), an uneven bars specialist, was an alternate for the 2016 Summer Olympics U.S. gymnastics team, the Final Five. In 2016, Kyrie Irving (Sioux) also helped Team USA win gold at the 2016 Summer Olympics. He became the 4th member of Team USA to capture the NBA championship and Olympic gold in the same year, joining LeBron James, Michael Jordan, and Scottie Pippen.

Literature

Main article: Native American literature

See also: List of writers from peoples Indigenous to the Americas and Postcolonial literature

Native American literature, composed of oral and written literature, has a long history. It is considered a series of literatures reflecting the varied traditions and histories of different tribes. Modern authors cover a range of genres and include Tommy Orange, Joy Harjo, Louise Erdrich, Stephen Graham Jones, Rebecca Roanhorse, Tommy Pico, and many more.

Music

Main article: Native American music

See also: Native American hip hop and Indigenous metal music

Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic, but there are exceptions. It often includes drums, rattles, or other percussion, but little other instrumentation. Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles, as noted by conquistador de Soto. The tuning of modern flutes is typically pentatonic.^{[citation needed]}

Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music such as Rita Coolidge, Wayne Newton, Gene Clark, Blackfoot, and Redbone. Some, such as John Trudell, have used music to comment on life in Native America. Others such as R. Carlos Nakai, Joanne Shenandoah and Robert "Tree" Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern, in instrumental recordings, whereas music by Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature. Recording companies offer an abundance of music by contemporary Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to rock-and-roll and rap. In the ballet dancing Maria Tallchief was considered America's first major prima ballerina, and the first of Native American descent to hold the rank. Along with her sister Marjorie Tallchief both became star ballerinas.

The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans is that of the pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most Indigenous communities maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.

Art

Further information: petroglyph, pictogram, petroform, Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous ceramics of the Americas, and Native American jewelry

The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and served as a medium of exchange and unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.

Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated ancestral spirits. Pueblo people are noted for high-quality pottery, often with geometric designs and floral, animal and bird motifs. Carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized their textile arts. Turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were formalized pictorial arts.

Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. For the Navajo, sand painting is not just a representational object, but a spiritual entity with a life of its own, which helped the patient at the center of the ceremony re-establish a connection with the life force. These sand creations were erased at the end of the healing ceremony.

It has been estimated that the Native American arts and crafts industry brings in a billion USD in gross sales annually. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection.^[vague] Native American contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculpture, basketry, and carvings. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, which prohibits the representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist. Gail Sheffield and others claim this has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized". Artists such as Jeanne Rorex Bridges (Echota Cherokee), who was not enrolled, ran the risk of fines or imprisonment if they sold their art while affirming their heritage.

Notable Native American artists include Franklin Gritts, a Cherokee artist who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now Haskell Indian Nations University) in the 1940s, the Golden Age of Native American painters.^{[citation needed]}

Interracial relations

Main article: Interracial relations among Native Americans in the United States

Native Americans have had many relationships with people from other backgrounds, such as Europeans and Africans. These relationships are complex and not well studied. Native Americans often marry people from different tribes or other races, which means fewer people today have strong connections to a single Native American tribe.

Assimilation

Further information: Cultural assimilation of Native Americans

When Europeans first came to America, they lived among Native Americans, learned their languages, and sometimes fought alongside them. There were also friendships and marriages between Native Americans and Europeans. However, there were also problems. Some Europeans did not respect Native American ways and introduced harmful things like alcohol, which many Native Americans could not process well in their bodies.

The U.S. government made agreements with Native Americans to get more land for white settlers and to encourage Native Americans to live like Europeans. They often did not explain these agreements well, so many Native American leaders did not understand what they were agreeing to. Over time, more Native American men and European American women met and formed relationships, especially when European American women worked at schools and missions.

European enslavement

Main articles: Slavery among Native Americans in the United States and Slavery among Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Before Europeans arrived, some Native American tribes practiced forms of slavery, but not on a large scale. They sometimes exchanged enslaved people with other tribes as gifts or to regain their own members. However, when Europeans came to North America, Native American practices changed. They began selling captured people to Europeans, especially as the need for labor grew in places like the West Indies where crops like sugar cane were grown.

European settlers, particularly in the southern areas, used Native Americans as forced labor to grow crops such as tobacco and rice. Exact numbers of those enslaved are unknown, but scholars believe it could have been tens to hundreds of thousands. Over time, slavery became tied to race, and laws were made to control enslaved people. The trade of Native American slaves lasted until around 1750, leading to conflicts among tribes and with Europeans. Even after this time, some Native Americans continued to be taken against their will in other areas.

Race, ethnicity, and citizenship

Main articles: Native American identity and Native Americans in United States elections

Native American identity is based on the tribe a person belongs to and their family ties, rather than just race or ethnicity. Each of the 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States has its own way of deciding who belongs. This idea of one single "Native American" race comes from European views, not from the tribes themselves.

Historically, many Native Americans were forced to change their ways of life, such as speaking English and following new religions. Some were sent to special schools far from their families, which made it hard to keep their traditions. Over time, through mixing with other groups, some lost strong ties to their tribes. Today, tribes decide who can join based on family history and sometimes a certain amount of Native American ancestry.

DNA

Main article: Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas looks at special parts of DNA called haplogroups. These parts of DNA are passed down from parents to children in specific ways. For example, some DNA is passed only from fathers to sons, while other parts come only from mothers to all their children. Scientists study these DNA patterns to learn about the history of Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Researchers have found five main DNA patterns that are common among Native American families. These patterns help show how people first came to the Americas thousands of years ago. The DNA also shows how later events, like European settlers arriving, changed the genetic makeup of these communities. By studying DNA, scientists can learn more about the ancient connections between different Indigenous groups and their ancestors.