Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the original inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere. Their ancestors lived in South, North America, Central America, and the Caribbean long before European explorers arrived. Today, Indigenous peoples live all across the Americas. In some places, like Greenland, Bolivia, and Guatemala, they make up most of the population.

There are at least 1,000 different Indigenous languages of the Americas. Some of these languages, such as Quechua, Arawak, Aymara, Guaraní, Nahuatl, and some Mayan languages, are still spoken by millions of people. These languages are official in countries like Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay, and Greenland.

Indigenous peoples keep many of their cultural traditions alive, whether they live in cities or the countryside. They practice their own religion, social organization, and ways of making a living. Some groups have stayed far away from modern Western culture, and are even considered uncontacted peoples.

In many parts of Latin America, most people have mixed Indigenous, European, and sometimes African or Asian roots. These people are often called mestizos. Even though many mestizos do not follow Indigenous traditions, more people are starting to recognize and celebrate their Indigenous heritage. Long ago, Indigenous societies had many different ways of living, from hunting and gathering to farming and building large cities. They were skilled in many areas, including engineering, architecture, agriculture, and art.

Terminology

Further information: Native American name controversy

The word "Indian)" started when Christopher Columbus was looking for India but landed in the Americas instead. He thought he had reached the East Indies, so the islands were called the "West Indies" or "Antilles". Over time, people began calling the original inhabitants "Indians". This name stuck, even though it wasn’t how they called themselves. Today, many prefer the term "First Nations" in Canada.

Different groups of original people live in the Americas, including those in cold Arctic areas like the Aleuts, Inuit, and Yupik peoples. They are also considered part of the original peoples of the Americas. The word Amerindian was created in 1902 but is not liked by everyone.

Name controversy

Main article: Native American name controversy

The many groups of original peoples in the Americas have different names they prefer to be called. Most like to be known by the name of their own specific group or tribe. Over time, new names have been suggested to respect these peoples better. In the United States, the term "Native American" is often used, but not everyone agrees on it. Since the 1970s, the word "Indigenous" has become more popular to describe these peoples, with the capital “I” to show respect for their cultures. Some think it’s better to just call them “Indigenous” without adding a country name.

History

Peopling of the Americas

Pre-Columbian era

Main articles: Pre-Columbian era and Archaeology of the Americas

The Pre-Columbian era refers to the time before Europeans arrived in the Americas. During this time, many Indigenous cultures developed in places like Mesoamerica and the Andes. Some of these cultures, such as the Aztec and Inca Empire, built large cities, created calendars, and developed advanced farming methods.

Indigenous peoples had their own ways of life, with some groups creating writing systems and keeping records. However, many of their writings were destroyed by European colonists, so we learn much of their history through archaeology and oral traditions.

European colonization

Main article: European colonization of the Americas

See also: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Columbian exchange, and Society of the Spanish-Americans in the Spanish Colonial Americas

When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they brought diseases like smallpox and measles, which many Indigenous peoples had never encountered before. These diseases caused many deaths. The arrival of Europeans also changed the lives of Indigenous peoples in many ways, including new ways of farming, new animals like horses, and new ways of trading.

Some Indigenous groups resisted the changes, but many faced difficult times as their populations decreased and their ways of life were altered. Despite these challenges, many Indigenous cultures survived and continue to thrive today.

Indigenous historical trauma

See also: Historical trauma § Indigenous historical trauma

Indigenous historical trauma is the hurt that builds up over many generations because of the effects of colonization. This hurt can affect the health of Indigenous communities in many ways.

Scientists have studied how this trauma impacts health, but it is hard to measure because Indigenous peoples have very different histories and experiences. Some ways they study it include asking about losses like language or land, and asking about feelings connected to these losses. They also look at the history of residential schools and how that might affect health today. Studies show that these experiences can be linked to many health challenges, but more careful study is needed to fully understand these connections.

Agriculture

See also: Agriculture in Mesoamerica, Incan agriculture, Eastern Agricultural Complex, Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains, and Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States

Plants

For thousands of years, Indigenous peoples grew and cared for many types of plants. These plants now make up between 50% and 60% of all crops grown around the world. They even created new types of plants, like turning wild grasses into maize in southern Mexico.

The highlands of South America were an early center for farming. Tests show that the potato originated in southern Peru. Almost all potatoes grown today come from a type found in south-central Chile, where people have been growing them for up to 10,000 years.

Indigenous peoples in North America began farming about 4,000 years ago. They used fire in a controlled way to help clear land and grow useful plants.

Many important crops we use today, like maize, cassava, tomatoes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, avocados, peanuts, cocoa beans, vanilla, strawberries, pineapples, and peppers, were first grown by Indigenous peoples.

Animals

Indigenous peoples also raised animals. They had many types of dogs, like the Chihuahua, used for different purposes. In the Andes, they raised llamas and alpacas for wool and meat. Llamas were important for carrying goods before European colonization.

Guinea pigs were raised for food in the Andean region and are now common pets. Some cultures kept birds like turkeys and ducks for food. In Mesoamerica, people kept bees to make a special drink called balché.

Culture

Further information: Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Category:Archaeological cultures of North America, and Category:Archaeological cultures of South America

Many Indigenous groups in the Americas share similar traditions based on where they live. For example, in Mesoamerica, people developed farming and social systems together over many years. On the North American plains, some groups lived by hunting bison and moving around a lot.

Languages

Main article: Indigenous languages of the Americas

North America had many different language groups, with about 56 main families. Some groups also used special hand signals to talk. Picture writing was used by groups like the Anishinaabe and Lenape.

Writing systems

See also: Syllabics used by Indigenous peoples living in Canada, Cherokee syllabary, and Quipu

Long before European settlers arrived, some cultures in Mesoamerica created their own ways to write. The Maya writing system could show spoken words using special symbols. The Zapotec writing system was another early writing style. The Aztecs made books called codices with pictures and later added letters from European writing.

Music and art

Main articles: Visual arts by Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Indigenous music

Traditional music from Indigenous groups often includes drums, singing, and instruments like rattles and flutes. Some cultures also used wind instruments and special tubes that sounded like rain. Artists created many beautiful things, such as pottery, paintings, jewelry, and woven fabrics. After Europeans arrived, Indigenous people also learned to play European instruments and created their own styles of music.

History and status by continent and country

North America

Canada

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Canada

Greenland

Main article: Greenlandic Inuit

The Greenlandic Inuit are the Indigenous and most populous ethnic group in Greenland. This means that Denmark has one officially recognized Indigenous group. Approximately 89 percent of Greenland's population is Greenlandic Inuit.

Mexico

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Mexico

The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish. In contrast to the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New Spain was one of racial intermingling. Today, Mestizos of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry are still a majority of the population. In the 2020 census, 23.2 million people identified as Indigenous. The Indigenous population is distributed throughout Mexico but is especially concentrated in certain areas.

United States

Main articles: Native Americans in the United States and Alaska Natives

Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States, including their descendants, were commonly called American Indians, or simply Indians. In Alaska, Indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11 languages. They include Native American peoples as well as Inuit, who are distinct but occupy areas of the region.

Central America

Belize

Mestizos (mixed European-Indigenous) number about 34% of the population; unmixed Maya make up another 10.6%. The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 19th century, have mixed African, Carib, and Arawak ancestry and make up another 6% of the population.

Costa Rica

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica

There are over 114,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups.

El Salvador

Main articles: Demographics of El Salvador and La Matanza

Estimates for El Salvador's Indigenous population vary. The 2024 census found that 1.2% of the population identified as Indigenous. Historically, estimates have claimed higher amounts. Much of El Salvador was home to various Indigenous groups like the Pipil, the Lenca, Mayas, Chorotegas, and Xincas.

Guatemala

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Guatemala

See also: Demographics of Guatemala

Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 43.6% of the population considering themselves Indigenous. The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of a majority of Maya groups and one non-Maya group. The Mayan language-speaking portion makes up 29.7% of the population and is distributed into 23 groups.

Honduras

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Honduras

About 5 percent of the population is of full-blooded Indigenous descent, but as much as 80 percent of Hondurans are mestizo or part-Indigenous with European admixture, and about 10 percent are of Indigenous or African descent. The largest concentrations of Indigenous communities are in the westernmost areas facing Guatemala and along the coast of the Caribbean Sea, as well as on the border with Nicaragua.

Nicaragua

See also: Nicaraguan Indigenous Organizations

About 5 percent of the Nicaraguan population is Indigenous. The largest Indigenous group in Nicaragua is the Miskito people. Another major Indigenous culture in eastern Nicaragua is the Mayangna (or Sumu) people. Other Indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the central, northern, and Pacific areas.

Panama

See also: Indigenous peoples of Panama

Indigenous peoples of Panama, or Native Panamanians, are the Native peoples of Panama. As of the 2023 census, Indigenous peoples constitute 17.2% of Panama's population. Many of the Indigenous Peoples live on comarca indígenas, which are administrative regions for areas with substantial Indigenous populations.

South America

Main article: Indigenous peoples of South America

Argentina

See also: Indigenous peoples in Argentina and List of Indigenous languages in Argentina

In 2005, the Indigenous population living in Argentina numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of the total population). The ten most populous Indigenous peoples are the Mapuche, the Kolla, the Toba, the Guaraní, the Wichi, the Diaguita–Calchaquí, the Mocoví, the Huarpe, the Comechingón, and the Tehuelche.

Bolivia

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Bolivia

In Bolivia, the 2012 National Census reported that 41% of residents over the age of 15 are of Indigenous origin. When both these categories are totaled, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was recorded as Indigenous in the 2001 Census. The largest Indigenous ethnic groups are Quechua, Aymara, Chiquitano, Guaraní, and Mojeño.

Brazil

See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or about 817,000 people, but millions of Brazilians are mestizo or have some Indigenous ancestry. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although in the 21st century, the majority of them live in Indigenous territories in the North and Center-Western parts of the country.

Chile

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Chile

According to the 2012 Census, 10% of the Chilean population, including the Rapa Nui of Easter Island, was Indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed heritage. Many are descendants of the Mapuche and live in Santiago, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Region.

Colombia

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Colombia

A minority today within Colombia's mostly mestizo and White Colombian population, Indigenous peoples living in Colombia, consist of around 85 distinct cultures and around 1,905,617 people. A variety of collective rights for Indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution.

Ecuador

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Ecuador

Ecuador was the site of many Indigenous cultures and civilizations of different proportions. Between 55% and 65% of Ecuador's population consists of Mestizos of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry, while Indigenous people comprise about 25%. Coastal groups, including the Awá, Chachi, and the Tsáchila, make up a small percentage of the Indigenous population.

French Guiana

French Guiana is home to approximately 10,000 Indigenous peoples, such as the Kalina and Lokono. Over time, the Indigenous population has protested against various environmental issues.

Guyana

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Guyana

During the early stages of colonization, the Indigenous peoples in Guyana partook in trade relations with Dutch settlers and assisted in militia services such as hunting down escaped slaves for the British, which continued until the 19th century. Guyana's Indigenous peoples have been recognized under the Constitution of 1965 and comprise 9.16% of the overall population.

Paraguay

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Paraguay

The vast majority of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay are concentrated in the Gran Chaco region in the northwest of the country, with the Guaraní making up the majority of the Indigenous population in Paraguay. The Guaraní language is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish.

Peru

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Peru

According to the 2017 Census, the Indigenous population in Peru makes up approximately 26%. However, this does not include mestizos of mixed Indigenous and European descent, who make up the majority of the population. Indigenous traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today.

Suriname

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Suriname

According to the 2012 census, the Indigenous population of Suriname numbers around 20,000, amounting to 3.8% of the population. The most numerous Indigenous groups in Suriname primarily comprise the Lokono, Kalina, Tiriyó, and Wayana.

Uruguay

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Uruguay

In the 2023 census, 6.4% of the population in Uruguay claimed to have some degree of indigenous ancestry.

Venezuela

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Venezuela

Most Venezuelans have some degree of Indigenous heritage even if they may not identify as such. The 2011 census estimated that around 52% of the population identified as mestizo. But those who identify as Indigenous, from being raised in those cultures, make up only around 2% of the total population. The Indigenous peoples speak around 29 different languages and many more dialects.

Caribbean

Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

The Indigenous population of the Caribbean islands consisted of the Taíno of the Lucayan Archipelago, the Greater Antilles and the northern Lesser Antilles, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The overall population suffered the most adverse colonial effects out of all the Indigenous populations in the Americas.

Cuba

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Cuba

Asia

Main article: Latin American Asian

Philippines

Main article: Mexican settlement in the Philippines

Historically, during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the territory was ruled as a province of the Mexico-centered Viceroyalty of New Spain and thus many Mexicans including those of Indigenous Aztec and Tlaxcalan descent, were sent as colonists there. According to a genetic study by the National Geographic, Filipinos can trace an average of 2% of their ancestry to Native Americans.

Rise of Indigenous movements

Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more active in standing up for their rights. They have formed groups to protect their cultures and make decisions about their own lives. Organizations like the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America help bring Indigenous people together across borders, such as those living in the Amazon Basin. Similar efforts for Indigenous rights are also happening in Canada and the United States, with groups like the International Indian Treaty Council.

The world has started to notice these movements. The United Nations adopted a special declaration to protect the rights of Indigenous peoples, even though some larger countries did not agree. In Colombia, Indigenous groups have marched to ask the government to keep promises about protecting their lands and safety.

Indigenous heads of state

José María Melo, of Pijao descent, was the first Indigenous president in the Americas. He led Colombia in 1854 and fought in the wars for independence from Spain before becoming president.

Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican, was the first Indigenous person to be democratically elected as president of a country in the Americas. He was elected President of Mexico in 1858 and led the country until 1872.

In 1930, Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro became the first Peruvian president with Indigenous ancestry and the first in South America.

Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first Indigenous person elected president of Bolivia, and the first elected in South America.

Genetic research

Main article: Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also: Y-DNA haplogroups in Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Genetic research helps us learn about the ancestors of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Scientists study special parts of DNA that are passed down from parents to children. One type, called Y-DNA, comes only from fathers to their sons. Another type, called mtDNA, comes from mothers to all their children. These types of DNA change very little, so they help show how people are related over many generations.

Studies show that Indigenous peoples of the Americas are most closely related to peoples from Siberia in North Asia. They share similar DNA patterns, especially in certain groups like the Ket, Selkup, Chukchi, and Koryak peoples. Most scientists believe that the first people came to the Americas from Asia through a land bridge called Beringia, located between what is now Russia and Alaska. This happened many thousands of years ago. Later, more people came, mixing with the first groups. This research gives us clues about how and when the first people arrived in the Americas.

Demography

Further information: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

This section shows estimates of how many people in each country or territory in the Americas are Indigenous or have some Indigenous ancestry. The numbers are shown as a percentage of the total population in each place.

The way these numbers are figured out can be different in each country. Some numbers come from big health or science studies, while others come from people saying they are Indigenous or from guesses based on what people look like.

Notable people

Main article: List of Indigenous people of the Americas

Many amazing and important people have come from the Indigenous groups of the Americas. These individuals have made big contributions in many areas, like art, leadership, science, and more. Their stories show the rich cultures and histories of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.