Brexit

Brexit was the time when the United Kingdom left the European Union. This happened on January 31, 2020. The UK had been part of the European Union and its earlier form, the European Communities, since January 1, 1973. The UK is the only country to have left the European Union so far.

Before leaving, the UK held a vote in June 2016 where people decided whether to stay in or leave the European Union. More people voted to leave than to stay. This decision caused changes in the UK's government and led to many discussions and agreements about the future relationship between the UK and the European Union. After leaving, the UK continued to work with the EU during a special period to arrange new rules for trade and other matters.

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of Brexit

In June 2016, people in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. The UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020. Before this, there were many debates and changes in plans. The process started when the UK government officially told the EU they wanted to leave. There were delays because of disagreements in the UK about what the future should look like. After new elections, the UK finally agreed on a plan and left the EU. During a transition period, the UK followed some EU rules but was no longer part of EU political groups.

Terminology and etymology

Main article: Glossary of Brexit terms

After a vote on 23 June 2016, many new words about Brexit started being used. The word Brexit is a mix of "British" and "exit". The Oxford English Dictionary says the term was first used in a blog post on 15 May 2012 by Peter Wilding. By 2016, the word became very popular. On 2 November 2016, the Collins English Dictionary chose Brexit as the word of the year for 2016.

Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership

Main articles: Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities and United Kingdom membership of the European Union

The Inner Six and Outer Seven of European integration from 1961 until 1973:

  EC Members (Inner Six)

  EFTA Members (Outer Seven)

When the United Kingdom first joined the European Communities (along with Denmark and Ireland) on 1 January 1973, it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.

  EC Members

The "Inner Six" European countries signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The 1955 Messina Conference decided that the ECSC was a success, and agreed to extend the concept further, leading to the 1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). These became known as the European Communities (EC) in /wiki/Merger_Treaty. The UK tried to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were blocked by the president of France, Charles de Gaulle, who was worried the UK would support US influence.

After de Gaulle left office in 1969, the UK successfully applied to join the European Communities (EC). Membership of the EEC was discussed at length in the House of Commons in October 1971. It led to a vote in favour of joining by 356 to 244. The Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972. Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year and the UK joined Denmark and the Republic of Ireland in becoming a member on 1 January 1973, without a public vote.

During the 1970s and 1980s, the Labour Party was more against joining the EC, and the Conservatives more in favour. Labour won the February 1974 general election without a majority and then contested the subsequent October 1974 general election with a plan to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfair, and then hold a vote on whether to stay in the EC under the new terms. Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its first ever national vote, asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite some disagreement within the ruling Labour Party, all major political parties and the main newspapers supported staying in the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of voters and all but two British areas voted to stay in; support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for leaving in the 2016 vote.

In 1979, the UK got its first choice to not join, although the term was not used at the time; it was the only EEC country not to take part in the European Monetary System.

The Labour Party campaigned in the 1983 general election on a plan to leave the EC without a vote. After their big loss in that election, Labour changed its policy. In 1985, the second Margaret Thatcher government approved the Single European Act—the first major update to the Treaty of Rome—without a vote.

In October 1990, under pressure from some senior ministers and despite Thatcher's strong concerns, the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound sterling linked to the deutschmark. Thatcher left office as prime minister the following month, partly due to disagreements in the Conservative Party about her increasingly against-EU views. The UK was forced to leave the ERM on Black Wednesday in September 1992, after the pound sterling came under pressure from currency speculation. Italy left the same month, but would soon rejoin on different terms. The UK did not try to rejoin and stayed outside the ERM.

On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had approved it, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty compromise between member states wanting closer ties and those wanting to keep more control over their own economy and government. Denmark, France, and the Republic of Ireland held votes to approve the Maastricht Treaty. According to the Constitution of the United Kingdom, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, approval in the UK did not need a vote. Despite this, British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor wrote that there was "a clear constitutional reason for needing a vote" because although Members of Parliament are trusted with law-making power by voters, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three votes all concerned this). Further, as the approval of the treaty was in the plans of the three major political parties, voters opposed to approval had limited ways to express this. For Bogdanor, while the approval by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be right—which needs popular agreement. The way the treaty was approved, he judged, was "likely to have big effects both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."

Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership

Main article: Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom

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Conservative prime ministers Margaret Thatcher (left) and David Cameron (right) used against-EU views while supporting the UK's membership and growth of the European single market. Against-EU views – and in particular the impact of the UK Independence Party (former leader Nigel Farage pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election results – led to Cameron's 2015–16 plan to renegotiate the UK's EU membership, and finally the holding of the 2016 vote. Cameron supported the UK staying in the EU, but left office after the vote produced a win for the "Leave" side.

Background

Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the Bruges speech of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new control from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 started the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the plan for leaving the EU", the Financial Times later wrote.

The vote to approve the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 caused a strong against-EU reaction, splitting the Conservative Party and leading to many past supporters forming new against-EU parties. This included Sir James Goldsmith forming the Referendum Party in 1994 to contest the 1997 general election on a plan of providing a vote on the UK's relationship with the EU.

Role of the EU leadership

Views of EU leadership during big problems significantly added to against-EU views in the UK. During the eurozone debt crisis, strict spending cuts were required as a condition for help, with EU member states, including the UK, asked to help pay for plans to assist. Critics argued that such rules mostly helped the interests of leading EU nations, particularly Germany, and weakened national control.

Similarly, during the 2015 migration crisis, Chancellor Angela Merkel's decision to open EU borders and her request that member states share the load of taking in refugees caused big disagreement. Many in the UK saw this as being forced to take on tasks without proper discussion, strengthening against-EU views.

Populist parties such as UKIP used these views, linking EU leadership to wider fears of losing British control. Campaign messages often used national pride and showed the EU as being too influenced by certain member states.

Electoral success and the 2016 vote

UKIP's success in elections, driven by its against-EU campaigns, led to big wins during the 2014 European elections, where it became the biggest UK party with 27.5% of the vote. This success put pressure on the ruling Conservative Party, finally leading to Prime Minister David Cameron's decision to hold the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership vote.

By linking views of EU leadership to concerns about control, against-EU parties and media shaped public opinion in the UK, helping to decide the vote result.

Opinion polls 1977–2015

Main article: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

Both for and against-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015. In the EC membership vote of 1975, two-thirds of British voters supported staying in the EC. Over the years of UK-EU membership, against-EU views existed on both the left and right of British politics.

According to a statistical study published in April 2016 by Professor John Curtice of Strathclyde University, surveys showed an increase in against-EU views (a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA study for the period of July–November 2015 showed that 60% supported the option to continue as a member and 30% supported leaving.

2016 EU membership referendum

Main article: 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

Negotiations for membership reform

Main article: 2015–2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership

In 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron first said no to a vote about the UK leaving the EU. But later, he said that if his party won the next election, they would hold a vote to decide if the UK should stay in or leave the EU after trying to change some rules. His party did win the election in 2015, and they started planning a vote for June 23, 2016.

Cameron wanted the UK to stay in the EU but with some changes. He wanted to keep special rules for countries that didn’t use the euro currency, make rules simpler, keep Britain from being part of an “ever-closer union,” and limit how many people from other EU countries could move to the UK.

Referendum result

Main article: Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

In the vote on June 23, 2016, 51.89% of people voted to leave the EU, and 48.11% voted to stay. After the result, Cameron stepped down as Prime Minister, and Theresa May took over. Many people signed a petition asking for another vote, but the government said no.

Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)

  Leave

  Remain

Voter demographics and trends

Further information: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

Studies showed that people in poorer areas, places with factories, and areas with fewer educated people were more likely to vote to leave the EU. Older people were also more likely to vote to leave, while younger people were more likely to vote to stay. People in Scotland and Northern Ireland mostly voted to stay, but because England has more people, that’s what decided the result. In England, cities like Manchester and Liverpool voted to stay, but industrial areas voted to leave.

Post-referendum investigations

See also: European Union membership referendum § Investigations into campaigns, and Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum

After the vote, some groups were fined for not following the rules about how much money they could spend. There were also questions about whether some people tried to change people’s minds using social media, but no final decisions were made about that.

Withdrawal process

Further information: Withdrawal from the European Union

Withdrawal from the European Union follows rules set in Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. This rule lets any member country leave by telling the European Union about its choice. After this, there is a two-year time frame for talks about how the country will leave and what will happen next. If no agreement is made in this time, the country still leaves, unless all EU countries agree to wait longer. The EU must approve any agreement with votes from its leaders and parliament.

Invocation of Article 50

Main article: United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union

Before the UK voted to leave the EU, the government said it would follow the result. After the vote, the new prime minister, Theresa May, decided to wait until 2017 to start the leaving process. In January 2017, a court decided that only Parliament could let the government start leaving. After this, a law was passed to let the government start the process. On 29 March, Theresa May officially started the leaving process, meaning the UK would leave the EU on 29 March 2019.

2017 UK general election

See also: 2017 United Kingdom general election

In April 2017, Theresa May called an early election to help with the leaving talks. The election did not go as expected. The party she led stayed the biggest but lost some seats. Another party gained seats, and some smaller parties lost seats or did not gain any.

UK–EU negotiations in 2017 and 2018

Before talks started, May said the UK would not stay in certain parts of the EU but would keep travel rules with Ireland. The EU wanted the UK to agree on money and rights for EU citizens living in the UK first. Talks started in June 2017 about these and other issues. By December 2017, some agreements were made, like protecting rights for citizens and estimating money the UK would pay. More talks were planned for the future.

May's agreement and failed ratification

In November 2018, the UK and EU agreed on a plan for leaving. But many in the UK did not like this plan. Votes in Parliament to approve it failed several times.

Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement

On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister asked to delay Brexit until 30 June 2019. Later, the EU offered new dates for leaving. In October 2019, a new agreement was made. This needed approval from both the EU and UK parliaments.

2019 UK general election

See also: 2019 United Kingdom general election

After not getting Parliament to approve the leaving plan, the prime minister called an early election for December 2019. The party he led won by a large amount, meaning the UK would leave the EU on 31 January 2020.

Ratification and departure

The UK’s time in the EU ended at 11 p.m. on 31 January 2020, 47 years after it joined. A countdown showed the moment, and celebrations happened in some places.

Transition period and final trade agreement

After leaving, the UK had a time until the end of 2020 where rules about trade and travel stayed mostly the same. Talks continued for a full trade deal, which was finished on 24 December 2020. This deal was approved by the UK Parliament and the EU in early 2021. Some rules about trade between parts of the UK and Ireland stayed in place, but there were delays and changes to when full checks would start.

United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification

European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

Main article: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

In 2016, the leader of the United Kingdom, Theresa May, promised a bill called the "Great Repeal Bill". This bill would remove a law that connected the UK to European Union rules and replace it with British laws. The bill was later called the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill and was introduced in July 2017.

The bill passed its first vote in September 2017. After many changes, it became law in June 2018. This law set a date for when the UK would leave the European Union and allowed the government to make decisions about when and how this would happen.

Exit day

The day the UK left the European Union was set for the end of 31 January 2020. This date was changed a few times before finally being set as 31 January 2020.

Additional government bills

Besides the main bill about leaving the European Union, many other laws were needed to handle different areas like trade and farming. Some important reports were also made about topics such as trade, relations with Ireland, and the environment.

Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018

Main article: Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018

The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 was introduced in October 2017. This law made sure that nuclear materials and equipment were only used for peaceful purposes.

European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020

Main article: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020

The European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 made sure the agreement for the UK leaving the European Union became part of British law. The bill was introduced in October 2019 but had to be reintroduced after elections. It became law on 23 January 2020, just before the UK left the European Union.

Public opinion since the Brexit referendum

Further information: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020)

Before 2020, opinions about Brexit changed over time. At first, fewer people supported it after the vote in 2016, but support grew again until the 2017 election. After that, more people thought the UK should have stayed in the EU or that leaving was a mistake. By October 2019, about 53% of people thought staying would have been better, while 47% thought leaving was right. This change was partly because many people who didn’t vote in 2016, especially younger people, preferred staying in the EU.

In March 2019, over 6 million people signed a petition asking the government to stay in the EU.

Further information: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)

Since 2020, more people have felt that Brexit did not go well. By May 2022, most thought it had gone badly. In January 2023, 54% of people believed leaving the EU was wrong, while only 35% thought it was right. Polls in 2023 showed that 58% of people wanted to rejoin the EU, compared to 42% who did not. Over time, support for rejoining the EU grew, while support for staying out decreased.

No-deal planning

See also: No-deal Brexit and Operation Yellowhammer

After the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union, a new department called the Department for International Trade was created to handle trade agreements with countries outside the EU.

Later, leaders discussed plans for what might happen if the UK left the EU without an agreement. Some leaders warned that these plans could cause problems for the economy and farming. In June 2020, a leader from Germany said it was important to keep working on trade talks to try to reach an agreement before the end of the year.

Litigation

There have been legal cases to understand the rules around Brexit. One important case is called the "Miller case". In this case, courts looked at whether the government could decide to leave the European Union on its own. They decided that the government used its powers correctly, but Parliament also had a right to be involved in the process.

Another case looked at whether the decision to leave could be changed. The courts decided that the UK could choose to stop its plan to leave the European Union if it wanted to. These cases helped clarify how the government and Parliament should work together during this big change.

Impact

"Impact of Brexit" redirects here. For predicted impact, see Predicted impact of Brexit.

Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a withdrawal agreement, or before an agreement was ratified ("no-deal" Brexit). In 2017, the Financial Times said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a part of upon leaving the EU.

Economic effects

Main article: Economic effects of Brexit

Economists thought that Brexit would have a bad effect on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU. In particular, there was a broad agreement among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely lower the UK's real income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit vote itself would hurt the economy. Studies found Brexit made things less certain, which reduced British jobs, investment by businesses, employment, and British trade from June 2016 onwards.

A 2019 analysis found that British companies greatly increased offshoring to the EU after the Brexit vote, while European companies reduced new investments in the UK. The British government's Brexit analysis, shared in January 2018, showed British economic growth would be slower by 2–8% over the 15 years after Brexit, depending on the situation. Economists warned that London's future as an international money centre depended on agreements with the EU. People who supported Brexit argued for making trade and movement agreements with the "CANZUK" countries—those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom—but economists said that trade deals with those countries would be much less helpful to the UK than being in the EU. Studies guessed that Brexit would make economic differences in the UK worse, by hurting already struggling places the most.

On 11 January 2024, the London Mayor's Office shared "Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy". The share talks about an independent report by Cambridge Econometrics that says London has almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and nationwide two million fewer jobs as a direct result of Brexit. Brexit is seen as a big reason for the 2023 cost-of-living problems, with the average person being nearly £2,000 worse off, and the average Londoner nearly £3,400 worse off in 2023 because of Brexit. In addition, UK real value was about £140bn less in 2023 than it would have been if the UK had stayed in the Single Market.

In 2024, French officials thought Brexit, so far, has lowered trade between the UK and the EU, but increased trade between China and the United Kingdom.

Local and geographic effects

Main article: Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union

The possible effect on the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has been a difficult issue. Since 2005, the border had been mostly invisible. After Brexit, it became the only UK–EU land border (not counting the land borders that EU states Spain and Cyprus have with British Overseas Territories). All sides agreed a hard border should be avoided, because it might hurt the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern Ireland conflict. To prevent this, the EU suggested a "backstop agreement" that would keep the UK in the Customs Union and keep Northern Ireland in some parts of the Single Market until a lasting solution was found. The UK Parliament did not agree to this idea. After more talks in autumn of 2019, a different plan, the Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is officially outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this makes sure there are no checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. Instead of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the plan has created a de facto customs "Irish Sea border" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain, which some Unionists did not like.

After the Brexit vote, the Scottish Government – led by the Scottish National Party (SNP) – planned another independence vote because Scotland voted to stay in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave. It had suggested this before the Brexit vote. The First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon, asked for a vote to be held before the UK left, but the British prime minister did not agree to this timing, but not the vote itself. At the vote in 2014, 55% of voters chose to stay in the UK, but the vote on Britain's leaving from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted to support holding another independence vote. Sturgeon asked for a "step-by-step return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU. In 2017, if Northern Ireland stayed linked with the EU – for example, by staying in the Customs Union – some experts said Scotland would also ask for special treatment. However, in that case, the only part of the United Kingdom which would get special treatment was Northern Ireland.

On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill. This was passed because talks between the Scottish Government and the British Government were not moving forward on where powers within areas that the government controls should be after Brexit. The Act allowed for all areas that the government controls to stay with the Scottish Parliament and reduced the power the UK Withdrawal Bill gives to Ministers of the Crown on the day the UK leaves. The bill was sent to the UK Supreme Court, which decided that it could not be put into action because the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, which got official approval between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's decision, said it could not be changed by the Scottish Parliament under schedule 4 of the Scotland Act 1998. The bill has therefore not gotten official approval.

Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory next to Spain, is affected by Brexit too. Spain says it has a claim on Gibraltar. After the vote, Spain's Foreign Minister said it wanted joint Spanish–British control. In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any argument over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit talks, and the British government said that UK–EU agreements made after Brexit would not automatically include Gibraltar. In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an agreement in thought on future plans for Brexit and asked the European Commission to make it an official agreement.

The French and British governments say they still support the Le Touquet Agreement, which lets UK border checks be done in France, and vice versa (juxtaposed controls). The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will lower the time taken to deal with people trying to reach the UK from Calais, from six months to one month. The UK also said it will put in another £44.5 million on border safety at the English Channel.

Effects on the European Union

Main article: Impact of Brexit on the European Union

Brexit made the European Union lose its second-biggest economy, its third-most populated country, and the second-biggest payer to the EU budget.

The UK is no longer a shareholder in the European Investment Bank, where it had 16% of the shares. The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would increase their shares to keep the same level of overall shares (EUR 243.3 billion). As of March 2020, the EIB's shares had grown by an extra EUR 5.5 billion, after two member states increased their shares (Poland and Romania). The EIB's total shares were EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not change the EIB Group's top rating.

Experts said that the leaving of the UK, which likes free markets, would lower the power of remaining free-market countries to stop measures in the Council of the EU. In 2019, before Brexit, the European Medicines Agency and European Banking Authority moved their offices from London to Amsterdam and Paris, respectively.

Sectorial effects

Academia

Brexit brings problems for British schools and research, as the UK loses money for research from EU sources and sees fewer students from the EU. Schools find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will have more trouble studying in the EU. The UK was part of the European Research Area and likely wants to stay linked after Brexit. The British government has promised to keep money for research that is now from the EU.

Aviation

By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA), a single market for air travel, but could talk about different future links with the EU. British airlines would still be allowed to fly in the EU with no limits, and vice versa. The British government wants to keep working with the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The UK has its own air service agreements with 111 countries, which allow flights to-and-from the country, and another 17 countries through its EU membership. These have since been changed. Boats will keep going, but with problems such as checks. New boat trips between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have started. As of August 2020^[update], the government's Goods Vehicle Movement Service, an IT system needed for goods after Brexit, was still only in the first steps of testing, with four months to go before it has to be working.

Finance

A 2025 report guessed that Brexit has caused a £20 billion drop in how well the UK financial world works, as big companies moved people and money to EU cities such as Frankfurt and Paris. Leaders are looking for ways to make things better outside the single market.

Fishing

The UK has left the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which gives money to farmers in the EU. Brexit let the UK make its own farming rules and the Agriculture Act 2020 changed the CAP with a new system. The UK also left the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast and lets the EU decide how much fish can be caught. The EU boats caught about six million tonnes of fish each year, as of 2016, about half from British waters. By leaving the CFP, the UK could make its own fishing rules. The UK also left the London Fisheries Convention that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German boats fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.

Health Services

An early 2019 study found that Brexit would make it harder to get enough workers for the National Health Service (NHS), make things less certain about care for British people living in the EU, and put at risk getting vaccines, tools, and medicines. The Department of Health and Social Care has said it has made plans to make sure medical things keep coming after Brexit. The number of nurses from outside the UK who register with the NHS went from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.^{[needs update]} In June 2016, 58,702 NHS workers said they were from outside the UK, and in June 2022, 70,735 NHS workers said they were from the EU. However, "to say this is the whole story would not be right, because there are over 57,000 more workers for whom we now know their country but not in 2016"

There was a worry that a sudden Brexit might have made it harder for patients to get important medicines. Health groups working with the government to keep medicines coming in case of a sudden Brexit had to sign 26 Non-Disclosure Agreements (NDAs) to stop them from telling the public. The numbers were given on 21 December 2018 after Rushanara Ali asked a question in Parliament.

Immigration

Main article: Modern immigration to the United Kingdom

After Brexit, the UK can control who comes from the European Economic Area (EU (except Ireland) and EFTA countries), because leaving ends the UK being part of the EU's freedom to move rule – both ways. The British government of the time planned to change it with a new system to control who comes in. The government's 2018 plan suggests a "system based on skills" that gives priority to people with skills. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can keep living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which started in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme. Experts think that Brexit and ending free movement will likely cause a big drop in people coming to the UK from EEA countries. After Brexit, any person from outside wanting to work in the UK would need a work permit.

Since Brexit was fully put into place, more EU citizens are leaving the UK than moving to it. After Brexit, the number of EU citizens who were not let into the UK grew five times. Of the 1,218,000 people who came to the UK in 2023, only 126,000 were from EU countries. BBC said that "In the 12 months to June 2023, the number of EU people coming to the UK was less than those leaving".

Law and Security

Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, EU rules will no longer be more important than British rules after Brexit. To keep things the same, the Act changes EU rules into British rules as "kept EU rules". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the governments that control parts of the UK) can choose which parts of these rules to keep, change or remove. Also, British courts will no longer have to follow the decisions of the EU Court of Justice after Brexit.

Worries were said by European leaders, including Michel Barnier, that Brexit might make safety problems for the UK because its police and teams that fight bad people would no longer have access to the EU's safety databases.

Trade

Predictions were made at the time of the vote that Brexit would create problems for trade, causing trade to drop between the United Kingdom and the European Union; however, after a drop in 2020 because of worldwide shutdowns, by 2022 trade in both ways had gone up to more than before Brexit. Trading goods went down but was made up for by an increase in professional services.

Some experts have said that the very bad effect of the COVID-19 disease in the UK in 2021 has hidden the bad effect of Brexit in 2021. In December 2021, the Financial Times quoted a range of experts as saying that the bad effect of Brexit on the UK economy and how well people are doing "seems to be bad but not certain". According to the Office for Budget Responsibility, the new trade deal between the EU and UK could, over time, cause a 4% drop in British work, compared with its level if the 2016 EU vote had gone the other way.

Utilities

Brexit was often said to be a reason for the 2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis, in which sudden need for things caused big problems getting fuel to roads across the UK, as it made the UK's not enough HGV drivers worse. In a July 2021 report, the Road Haulage Association guessed the UK was short of up to 100,000 truck drivers.

Cultural references

Brexit inspired many creative works such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, music, movies, and video games. Most British artists and writers felt negatively about Brexit, matching how many people in the creative industries voted against leaving the European Union. Even though immigration was a big topic during the Brexit discussions, artists did not often show the views of migrants in their work. However, some UK-based migrant artists used this moment to create new pieces, helping to share their stories and build connections across different cultures.