Commander-in-chief

A commander-in-chief is the person who has the highest authority over an armed force or a military branch. This role gives the commander-in-chief the power to make important decisions about how the military operates. The term "commander-in-chief" is used in many countries, but different places may use other names for this top leader.

In many countries, the commander-in-chief is the head of state or the head of government. This means that leaders like a president or a prime minister might also hold this important military role. However, some countries choose a special government official to be the commander-in-chief instead.

The name for this role changes depending on the language and traditions of the country. For example, in French-speaking countries, they might call this leader the "Chief of armies," while many European countries use the term "Supreme Commander." In the Soviet Union and some countries that were part of it, the title was "Supreme commander-in-chief." Even in places where "commander-in-chief" is not the main title, it might still be used for very important military leaders. For instance, in the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the president of Ukraine is the top leader, while another official serves as the professional head of the military.

Definition

The idea of a commander-in-chief comes from old leaders called Imperator in the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire. These leaders had great power over the army.

In English, the word "commander-in-chief" was first used during the English Civil War. Usually, a country's head of state—whether a king, queen, or president—holds this important job, even if someone else actually runs the government. In some systems where leaders are chosen by voting, the government still depends on what the voting group decides, but they don’t give direct orders to soldiers. Important leaders in places far away, like governors-general, are also often made commander-in-chief for the army in their area.

Heads of state as commanders in chief

Heads of state can hold the role of commander-in-chief of their country's armed forces. This includes both ceremonial leaders and those with real decision-making power.

Albania

The president of Albania is the commander-in-chief of the Albanian Armed Forces, according to the Constitution of Albania.

Argentina

The Constitution of Argentina states that the president of the Argentine Nation is the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Nation. The Ministry of Defense assists the president in managing the armed forces.

Australia

The Constitution of Australia states that the commander-in-chief of the naval and military forces is the Governor-General, who acts as the representative of the Queen. In practice, the Australian Cabinet controls the Australian Defence Force, with the minister for defence and other ministers handling day-to-day control.

Austria

The Constitution of Austria states that the president of Austria is the commander-in-chief of the Austrian Armed Forces, with the minister of defence in charge of the army.

Barbados

The Constitution of Barbados names the president of Barbados as commander-in-chief of the Barbados Defense Force. Before 2021, this role was held by the monarch of Barbados.

Bangladesh

The president of Bangladesh is the commander-in-chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, though the prime minister holds executive power over national defense.

Belarus

The president of Belarus is the commander-in-chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces, with the authority to appoint and dismiss high command.

Belgium

The Constitution of Belgium designates the king as commander-in-chief, though the chief of defence handles daily command under the minister of defence.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The collective presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, acting through the minister of defence in peacetime.

Brazil

The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 places the Brazilian Armed Forces under the supreme command of the president of Brazil.

Brunei

The sultan of Brunei serves as commander-in-chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.

Canada

The Canadian monarch holds the powers of command-in-chief, which are delegated to the governor general of Canada. The minister of national defence is responsible to Parliament of Canada for national defense matters.

China

Croatia

The Constitution of Croatia names the president of Croatia as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia, acting through the minister of defence in peacetime.

Czechia

The Constitution of the Czech Republic makes the president of the Czech Republic the commander-in-chief, with the prime minister and Government holding political responsibility.

Denmark

The Danish monarch traditionally holds supreme command, though the minister of defence is the highest authority in practice.

Dominican Republic

The Constitution names the president as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police, and other security agencies.

Egypt

The president of Egypt holds the title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, with a government member, usually the defence minister, acting as commander-in-chief.

Eswatini

The king of Eswatini is the commander-in-chief of the Umbutfo Eswatini Defence Force.

Finland

The Constitution of Finland makes the president of Finland the commander-in-chief, with the chief of defence handling everyday command.

France

The president of France is designated as "Chef des Armées" (Chief of the Armies) under the Constitution, holding supreme executive authority in military affairs.

Ghana

The Constitution of Ghana names the president of Ghana as commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces.

Guyana

The Guyanese constitution names the president as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

India

The president of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces, though executive command is exercised by the prime minister and Union Council of Ministers.

Indonesia

The Constitution of Indonesia states that the president of Indonesia holds supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, with day-to-day operations handled by the commander of the Armed Forces.

Iran

After 1979, the role of commander-in-chief was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.

Ireland

The president of Ireland is the supreme commander, though the minister for defence acts on their behalf.

Italy

The Constitution of Italy states that the president of Italy is the commander of the armed forces, with executive power resting with the government.

Kenya

The Constitution of Kenya identifies the president of Kenya as commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces.

Latvia

The Constitution of Latvia makes the president of Latvia Commander-in-Chief of the Latvian National Armed Forces.

Malaysia

The King of Malaysia is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, with the power to appoint senior military leaders.

Mexico

The Constitution of Mexico states that the president of Mexico is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.

New Zealand

The Monarch of New Zealand and their representative, the governor-general, serve as commander-in-chief, though this role is largely ceremonial.

Nigeria

The Constitution of Nigeria names the president of Nigeria as commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces.

Norway

The Constitution of Norway states that Harald V, King of Norway, is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces.

Pakistan

The president of Pakistan is the commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces.

Philippines

The president of the Philippines is mandated by the Constitution to be commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

Poland

The president of Poland is the supreme commander of the Polish Armed Forces, exercising authority through the Minister of National Defence in peacetime.

Portugal

The president of Portugal is the constitutional supreme commander of the Armed Forces, with operational command delegated to the chief of the general staff of the Armed Forces.

Russia

The Constitution of the Russian Federation names the president of Russia as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.

Rwanda

The Constitution of Rwanda names the president of Rwanda as commander-in-chief of the Rwanda Defence Forces.

Saudi Arabia

The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states that the king of Saudi Arabia is the commander-in-chief of all Military Forces.

Serbia

The president of Serbia is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

Slovenia

In Slovenia, the commander-in-chief is formally the president of Slovenia, though in peacetime this role is usually assumed by the minister of defence.

South Africa

The Constitution of South Africa states that the president of South Africa is the commander-in-chief of the South African National Defence Force.

South Korea

The Constitution of South Korea names the president of South Korea as the commander-in-chief and supreme authority on all military matters.

Spain

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 authorizes the king to exercise supreme command of the Armed Forces.

Sri Lanka

As head of state, the president of Sri Lanka is nominally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Suriname

The constitution gives the president of Suriname supreme authority over the armed forces.

Syria

The constitution of Syria states that the president is the “Supreme Commander of the Army and Armed Forces”.

Taiwan

The Constitution of the Republic of China stipulates that the president is the commander-in-chief of the ROC Armed Forces.

Thailand

The position of commander-in-chief is vested in the Thai monarch, who is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Armed Forces.

Turkey

The Constitution of Turkey gives the president of Turkey the right to represent the Supreme Military Command and make key military decisions.

Ukraine

The President of Ukraine is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.

United Kingdom

The British monarch is the Head of the British Armed Forces and is considered the ultimate authority.

United States

The Constitution of the United States states that the president of the United States is "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States".

Uzbekistan

The Uzbek president holds the constitutional position of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Uzbekistan.

Venezuela

The Venezuelan constitution names the president as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

Vietnam

The president of Vietnam is the de jure commander-in-chief, though real power lies with the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party.

Other officeholders as commanders-in-chief or other situations

Armenia

The prime minister of Armenia holds the title of Supreme Commander in Chief of the Armenian Armed Forces. The hereditary title and rank of Sparapet was used to describe the supreme commander of the military forces of ancient and medieval Armenia. Since its introduction in the 2nd century BC, it is often used today to describe famous and high-ranking military officials. Notable Armenians to have held the title include Garegin Nzhdeh, the supreme commander of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia, and Vazgen Sargsyan, the two-time defense minister of Armenia and prime minister in the 1990s.

China

See also: The Party commands the gun

Article 93 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states the authority to direct the armed forces is invested to the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China. The same article also states that the chairman of the Central Military Commission assumes overall responsibility for the work of the Central Military Commission and that it is responsible to the National People's Congress and its Standing Committee. There is also the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party under the authority of the Party Central Committee. In practice, both commissions have identitical membership, except for a brief period between the Party Congress and the National People's Congress, and are practically the same institutution under the system of "one institution, two names".

Furthermore, Article 80 gives the National People's Congress and its Standing Committee the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and to issue mobilisation orders.

The state president and the CMC chairman are distinctly separate state offices and they have not always been held by the same persons. However, beginning in 1993, during the tenure of Jiang Zemin as General Secretary of the Communist Party and CMC chairman, it has been standard practice to have the offices of the CCP general secretary, president, and the CMC chairman to be normally held by the same person; although the slight differences in the start and end of terms for those respective offices means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.

Hong Kong

When Hong Kong was under British authority, the civilian governor was the ex officio commander-in-chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong. After the territory's handover to the People's Republic of China in 1997, the commanders of the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison are PLA personnel from mainland China and commanded by the CMC.

Ethiopia

The 1995 Constitution designates the prime minister of Ethiopia as "Commander-in-Chief of the national armed forces" in Article 74(1).

Germany

Federal Republic of Germany (1956–present)

Upon the re-militarization of West Germany in 1955, when it joined NATO, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was amended in 1956 to include constitutional provisions for the command of the armed forces.

• In peacetime, under Article 65a, the federal minister of defence (German: Bundesminister der Verteidigung) holds the supreme command authority (German: Inhaber der Befehls- und Kommandogewalt - IBuK) over the Bundeswehr.
• If the Bundestag declares the state of defence (German: Verteidigungsfall), the Federal Chancellor, under Article 115b, assumes the command authority over the armed forces. As of 2023^[update], this has never happened.
• The president of Germany has thus no role in the command of the forces, although he continues to receive the ceremonial honors due to his position as a head of state.

Placing the command authority over the armed forces directly with the responsible minister in charge of the military establishment breaks with the longstanding German constitutional tradition in both earlier monarchical and republican systems of placing it with the head of state. The rationale was that in a democratic parliamentary system the command authority should directly reside where it would be exercised and where it is subject to the parliamentary control of the Bundestag at all times. By assigning it directly to the responsible minister, instead of with the Federal Chancellor, this also meant that military affairs is but one of the many integrated responsibilities of the government; in stark contrast of earlier times when the separate division of the military establishment from the civil administration allowed the former to act as a state within a state (in contrast to the Federal Republic, the Weimar Republic began with the Ebert–Groener pact, which kept the military establishment as an autonomous force outside the control of politics; the 1925 election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reichspräsident, surrounded by his camarilla and the machinations of Kurt von Schleicher, did little to reverse the trend).

East Germany (1960–1990)

The legislature of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the Volkskammer, enacted on 13 February 1960 the Law on the Formation of the National Defense Council of the GDR, which established a council consisting of a chairman and at least 12 members. This was later incorporated into the GDR Constitution in April 1968. The National Defense Council held the supreme command of the National People's Army (including the internal security forces), and the council's chairman (usually the General Secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party) was considered the GDR's commander-in-chief.

The GDR joined with the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990, upon which the GDR's constitution and armed forces were abolished.

German Reich (1871–1945)

During the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire, Weimar Republic and the Nazi era, whoever was the head of state—the king of Prussia/German emperor (under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia/Constitution of the German Empire) to 1918, the Reichspräsident (under the Weimar Constitution) to 1934, and the Führer from 1934 to 1945—was the head of the Armed Forces (German: Oberbefehlshaber: literally "Possessor of highest command").

Below the level of the head of state, each military branch (German: Teilstreitkraft) had its own head who reported directly to the head of state and held the highest rank in his service; in the Reichsheer - Generalfeldmarschall, and in the Reichsmarine - Grossadmiral.

After Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed power as Führer (after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg), he would later grant his war minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in 1935, when conscription was reintroduced. However, in 1938 due to the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler withdrew the commander-in-chief title, abolished the war ministerial post and assumed personal command of the Armed Forces. The war ministerial post was de facto overtaken by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was headed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel until the German surrender.

Greece

According to Article 45 of the Greek Constitution, the president is the head of the Greek Armed Forces, but their administration is exercised by the government. The prime minister, the minister for national defence and the chief of the general staff are the ones who command the Armed Forces.

Iraq

In pre-war Iraq, the commander-in-chief was the head of state, i.e. the president. In the current constitution, the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi Armed Forces is the prime minister, and the president only retains a ceremonial and honorary role of awarding medals and decorations on the recommendation of the commander-in-chief.

Israel

In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel (chaired by the prime minister) as a collective body. The authority of the government is exercised by the minister of defense on behalf of the Government. However, the commander-in-chief of the IDF is the chief of general staff who, despite being subordinate to the minister of defense, holds the highest level of command within the military.

Japan

In Japan, prior to the Meiji Restoration the role of the commander-in-chief was vested in the shōgun (the most militarily powerful samurai daimyō). After the dissolution of the Tokugawa shogunate, the role of the commander-in-chief resided with the Emperor of Japan. The present-day constitutional role of the emperor is that of a ceremonial figurehead. The current Japanese constitution describes the emperor as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People," without any military role.

After Japan's move towards democracy, the position of commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces is held by the prime minister of Japan. Military authority runs from the prime minister to the cabinet-level minister of defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense.

Malta

The Malta Armed Forces Act does not directly establish the president of Malta as the supreme commander of the Armed Forces. However, Maltese law allows the president to raise by voluntary enlistment and maintain an armed force. Likewise, the law allows the president to issue orders in order to the administrate the armed forces.

The Armed Forces do not swear allegiance to the president of Malta, but rather to the Republic of Malta. On this basis, there is no direct link between the head of state and the armed forces. For this reason, this link is mediated by the minister responsible for defence.

Nonetheless, the Presidential Palaces are guarded by the Armed Forces as a symbolic gesture of social cohesion.

Myanmar

In Myanmar, the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services (Tatmadaw) is the commanding officer national military, a position vested in a military officer, not the president. The commander-in-chief is, however, a member of the National Defence and Security Council and reports to the president. The commander-in-chief is assisted in his/her role by the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services.

Netherlands

The Constitution of the Netherlands states, in article 97, that "the Government shall have supreme authority over the armed forces". Article 42 defines the Government as the Monarch and the ministers, and that only ministers are responsible for acts of government. Article 45 further defines the ministers as constituting the Cabinet, chaired by the prime minister, with "authority to decide upon overall government policy".

Before the constitution change in 1983, the equivalent section stated that: "The King shall have supreme authority over the armed forces". Nevertheless, the role of the monarch as commander in chief was ceremonial as in most European constitutional monarchies. As a consequence of being only part of the government, monarchs of the Netherlands do not hold a military rank. The current king of the Netherlands Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands resigned from his military ranks (equivalent to one-star general in all branches) upon becoming king in 2013. He has been provided with royal insignia to show his lasting commitment to the armed forces, but these represent no formal rank.

The minister of defence has the primary ministerial responsibility for the armed forces, which are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence. The chief of defence is the highest ranked professional military officer, and serves as an intermediary between the minister of defence and the Armed Forces, and is responsible to the minister for military-strategic planning, operations and deployment of the Armed Forces.

North Korea

Article 47 of the Rules of the Workers' Party of Korea stipulates that the Korean People's Army is "Revolutionary Armed Forces of the Workers' Party of Korea" and "Korean People's Army conducts all military and political activities under the leadership of the Party." Article 30 invests commanding authority to the Party Central Military Commission, whose ex officio chair is the General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea.

Article 103 of the Constitution of North Korea designates the President of the State Affairs Commission, as the country's head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Currently both offices are occupied by Kim Jong Un. Since 2018, he started issuing orders in the name of the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, instead of the Supreme Commander.

Sweden

In Sweden, with the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280, nobles were exempted from land taxation if they provided cavalrymen to the king's service. Following the Swedish War of Liberation (1521–23) from the Kalmar Union, a Guards Regiment was formed under the King and from there the modern Swedish Army has its roots. During the age of the Swedish Empire, several kings—Gustavus Adolphus the Great, Charles X Gustav, Charles XI & Charles XII—personally led their forces into battle. Under the Instrument of Government of 1809, which was in force until the current Instrument of Government of 1974 went into force on 1 January 1975; the monarch was in §§ 14-15 explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Högste befälhavare).

At present, the Government (Swedish: Regeringen) as a collective body, chaired and formed by the prime minister of Sweden, holds the highest Executive Authority, subject to the will of the Riksdag; and is thus the present day closest equivalent of a command-in-chief, although not explicitly designated as such. The reason for this change was, apart from the fact that the king was since 1917 no longer expected to make political decisions without ministerial advice, that the new Instrument of Government was intended to be made as descriptive on the workings of the State as possible, and reflective on how decisions are actually made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked in the government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decisions would be of a "fictitious nature" and "highly unsatisfactory".

Certain government decisions regarding the Armed Forces (Swedish: Särskilda regeringsbeslut) may be delegated to the minister for defence, under the supervision of the prime minister and to the extent laid down in ordinances.

To add to some confusion to the above, until 2024, the title of the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces and highest ranked commissioned officer on active duty, was supreme commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Överbefälhavaren). In 2024, this title was changed to Chief of Defense, as a consequence of Sweden's accession to NATO.

However, the Monarch (as of present King Carl XVI Gustaf), is still a four-star general and admiral à la suite in the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force and is by unwritten convention regarded as the foremost head and representative of the Swedish Armed Forces. The king has, as part of his court, a military staff. The military staff is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and is composed of active duty military officers serving as aides to the king and his family.

Switzerland

Supreme authority over the military belongs to the Federal Council, which is the Swiss collegial head of state. Notwithstanding the previous sentence, under the Constitution, the Federal Council can only, in the operational sense, command a maximum of 4,000 soldiers, with a time limit of three weeks of mobilisation. For it to field more service personnel, the Federal Assembly must elect a General who is given four stars. Thus, the General is elected by the Federal Assembly to give him the same democratic legitimacy as the Federal Council.

In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces (Chef der Armee), who reports to the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports and to the Federal Council as a whole. The Chief of the Armed Forces has the rank of Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps (OF-8 in NATO equivalence).

In a time of declared war or national emergency, however, the Federal Assembly, assembled as the United Federal Assembly, specifically for the purpose of taking on the war-time responsibilities elect a General as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces under Article 168 of the Constitution. Whilst the General acts as the highest military authority with a high degree of autonomy, he is still subordinate to the Federal Council (See Articles 58, 60, 174, 177, 180 & 185). The Federal Assembly retains the sole power to dismiss the General, but the General remains subordinate to the Federal Council by the council's ability to demobilise, thereby making the position of General redundant.

Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco-Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob", "the Mobilisation"). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.