Eastern philosophy

Eastern philosophy is a broad term that describes many different ways of thinking that began in East and South Asia. It includes ideas from places like China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and India. These philosophies help people understand life, the world, and how to live well.

One well-known part of Eastern philosophy comes from India, including Hindu philosophy, Jain philosophy, and Buddhist philosophy. These teachings have shaped the cultures and beliefs of many countries, such as South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, Japan, and Mongolia.

People who study Eastern philosophy look at questions about truth, knowledge, and how to live a good life. The ideas from this part of the world continue to influence many people today, both in Asia and around the globe.

Indian philosophy

Main article: Indian philosophy

Further information: Hinduism, Hindu philosophy, and Indonesian philosophy

Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical traditions from the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism may have roots dating back to the times of the Indus Valley civilization. The major Hindu schools arose between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire. These schools developed ideas that mixed Brahmanical and other elements from Buddhism and Jainism. Hindu thought spread to places like the Srivijaya empire in Indonesia and the Khmer Empire in Cambodia. Today, Hinduism is the dominant way of life in South Asia. It includes many traditions and a wide range of ideas about daily life based on concepts like karma and dharma.

Some of the earliest philosophical texts are the Upanishads from the later Vedic period. Important ideas include dharma, karma, samsara, moksha, and ahimsa. Indian philosophers explored topics like logic, knowledge, and the nature of reality. They also discussed political ideas and love in texts like the Arthashastra and the Kama Sutra. Later, influences from Tantra and Iranian-Islamic ideas appeared. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after the Muslim conquest, but it survived in other regions.

Orthodox schools

The main Indian philosophical schools are called orthodox or heterodox based on whether they accept the Vedas as a source of knowledge. There are six major orthodox schools: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Each school has its own ideas about knowledge, reality, and the universe.

Sāmkhya and Yoga

Sāmkhya is a tradition that focuses on the relationship between consciousness and matter. The Yoga school, closely related to Sāmkhya, emphasizes meditation and liberation. Yoga allows for the idea of a God, while most Sāmkhya thinkers did not.

Nyāya

The Nyāya school explores sources of knowledge and seeks correct understanding to avoid suffering. It accepts four reliable ways to gain knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony from experts.

Vaiśeṣika

Vaiśeṣika is a school that believes the universe is made of atoms. It accepts only two sources of knowledge: perception and inference.

Mīmāṃsā

Mīmāṃsā focuses on the study of the Vedas and rituals. It holds that the Vedas are eternal and infallible, and it emphasizes the importance of following Vedic duties.

Vedānta

Vedānta focuses on the ideas found in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita. It explores the nature of ultimate reality (Brahman), the individual soul (Ātman), and the empirical world (Prakriti). Different traditions within Vedānta include Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism), and Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference).

Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools

The heterodox schools come from non-Vedic traditions. These include Jainism, early Buddhism, Cārvāka, Ajñana, and Ājīvika.

Jain philosophy

Jain philosophy deals with reality, cosmology, and the nature of the soul. It emphasizes non-violence, the theory of multiple facets of truth, and the importance of personal responsibility for liberation.

Cārvāka

Cārvāka was a philosophy that rejected the Vedas and supernatural ideas. It was skeptical and materialistic, believing perception was the main source of knowledge.

Ājīvika

Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala and believed in strict determinism, where everything is preordained by cosmic principles.

Ajñana

Ajñana was a school of radical skepticism that believed it was impossible to know metaphysical truths.

Buddhist philosophies

Buddhist philosophy begins with the thoughts of Gautama Buddha and developed in India and later across Asia. It focuses on ending suffering through understanding the true nature of things. Key ideas include the Four Noble Truths, the concept of not-self (Anatta), and the impermanence of all things (Anicca). Later traditions developed complex ideas about the mind and reality.

Sikh philosophy

Sikhism was developed by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region. Its main beliefs include meditation on God's name, following the Guru's guidance, living a householder's life, truthful action, equality for all, and belief in God's grace. Key concepts include Simran, Seva, and the Three Pillars of Sikhism.

Modern Indian philosophy

In response to colonialism and contact with Western ideas, new ways of thinking emerged in the 19th century. These included Neo-Vedanta and Hindu modernism, which focused on the unity of Indian philosophy and different religions. Influential figures include Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi.

East Asian philosophies

Main articles: Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy

Chinese

East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy developed during the Western Zhou dynasty and the periods after it fell, known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought" from the 6th century to 221 BCE. This time was full of new ideas and saw the rise of important Chinese schools like Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism, along with others such as Mohism, School of Names, and School of Yin Yang. These ideas influenced the rest of the East Asian cultural sphere. They are tied to the natural cycles of the seasons. Buddhism came to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) through trade routes and later developed its own unique forms, such as Chan or Zen.

Confucianism

Main article: Confucianism

Confucianism is a Chinese way of thinking that focuses on values like family harmony, respect for elders, kindness, and proper behavior. It grew from the teachings of Confucius (551–479 BCE), who wanted to pass on the values of past leaders. Important thinkers like Mencius and Xun Kuang added to these ideas, though they disagreed on whether people are naturally good or need guidance.

Confucianism believes these values come from a greater idea called Heaven (Tiān 天) and also respects spirits. It became a key part of Chinese government during the Han dynasty and was revived many times, especially during the Tang dynasty, Song dynasty, and Ming dynasty. In Korea, it was important during the Joseon dynasty. Today, many East Asian countries still feel its influence.

Legalism

Legalism was a way of thinking that focused on laws and strong government control. Unlike other schools that thought about morals, Legalism was practical, aiming for order and safety through strict rules and powerful leaders. Important thinkers included Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, who helped make the Qin state strong enough to unite China in 221 BCE. Later, Han Fei wrote a famous book called the Han Feizi, which guided many Chinese rulers.

Mohism

Mohism was started by Mozi (c. 470–391 BCE) and his students. It taught that everyone should care for each other equally, no matter their family or friends. Mozi also believed that government should be based on talent, not family ties. He did not like expensive rituals and instead supported practical solutions like farming and building strong defenses. Mohism disappeared after the Qin dynasty, but its ideas lived on in other schools.

Taoism

Main article: Taoist philosophy

Taoism is about living in harmony with the Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: Dào), the natural way of the universe. Taoism values easy living, natural behavior, and simplicity, unlike Confucianism which focuses more on rules. Many Taoists also believed in living forever through special practices. Taoism began in the 4th century BCE and was influenced by older ideas about nature. Important books include the Dao De Jing and the Nan Hua Jing. Over time, Taoism grew into many different groups and was also shaped by Chinese Buddhism.

Modern East Asian philosophy

Chinese

Modern Chinese thinking grew from older ideas like Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, and new ideas from the West, called "Western Learning". After tough times like the Opium war of 1839–42, some Chinese leaders tried to mix Chinese traditions with useful Western knowledge. Others worked to bring back and strengthen old Chinese ideas. A movement called New Confucianism began in the 20th century to revive Confucian thought.

Japanese

Modern Japanese thinking was shaped by Western science and ideas. During the Edo period (1603–1868), Japanese people studied Western science, called Rangaku. Another movement, Kokugaku, focused on ancient Japanese culture. In the Meiji period (1868–1912), thinkers tried to mix Western ideas with Japanese traditions. Later, during the Shōwa period (1926–1989), new ideas like State Shinto and nationalism grew. Japanese Buddhist thinking was also influenced by the Kyoto School, which combined Western philosophy with Buddhist ideas.

Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy

See also: Buddhism and Western philosophy, Perennial philosophy, Intercultural philosophy, and New Age

In recent times, many people have tried to mix ideas from Western and Eastern philosophies.

For example, a thinker named Arthur Schopenhauer combined ideas from Hinduism with Western ways of thinking. Another group, called the Kyoto School, mixed ideas from a type of Buddhism called Zen with Western philosophy.

Some modern Chinese thinkers have also tried to blend Western ideas, like democracy, into their own traditions. Others have been influenced by Western thinkers and systems, like Marxism.

Criticism

Some people think that the idea of "Eastern philosophy" was created by scholars in the 19th century and did not really exist in Asia before that. They say that in Asia, there are many different traditions that developed separately instead of one big united tradition.

Some thinkers from Europe believe that true philosophy only comes from Western cultures. For example, a philosopher named Martin Heidegger thought that only Greek and German languages could be used for deep thinking about life. Even today, many Western universities focus only on Western ideas and sometimes ignore the thoughtful traditions from Asia. Some experts support this view, while others argue for including both Western and Asian ideas equally. One person even says that what Asians have is different from what Westerners call philosophy.