History of China

The history of China spans several thousand years across a wide area. Chinese civilization began in the Yellow and Yangtze river basins and grew into one of the world's oldest cradles of civilization. Traditional historiography looks at this past through the dynastic cycle. The earliest confirmed historical period begins with the Shang dynasty (c. 1250 BC), which left the oldest surviving oracle bone inscriptions. It was followed by the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), which introduced the Mandate of Heaven and laid the philosophical foundations for Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism.

China was first unified under a centralized imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) set up a long-lasting imperial order, made Confucianism official, and encouraged major technological advances such as paper-making. After centuries of disunity, which saw the spread of Buddhism, imperial unity was restored by the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the Tang dynasty (618–907). The Tang era was a golden age of poetry, culture, and trade with many countries. The Song dynasty (960–1279) followed and drove major advances in woodblock printing, technology, and the imperial examination system.

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Han rule returned with the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), which was known for maritime exploration, the arts, and major repairs to the Great Wall and Grand Canal. The final imperial line, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), expanded China's territory to its greatest size. In the 19th century, however, it suffered severe internal instability and military defeats to foreign powers.

The 1911 Revolution ended imperial rule and established the Republic of China (ROC). Decades of conflict followed, including the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. In 1949, Mao Zedong, leader of the Chinese Communist Party, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland, while the ROC government retreated to Taiwan. After the Cultural Revolution, the PRC began reform and opening up under Deng Xiaoping in 1978. This transformed the country into the world's fastest-growing major economy.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory of China

See also: List of Paleolithic sites in China

See also: List of Neolithic cultures of China

Further information: Yellow River civilization, Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization

See also: List of Bronze Age sites in China

Further information: Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

Early humans of the archaic human species Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago, and their remains have been found in what is now China. The oldest is Yuanmou Man, from Yunnan, who lived about 1.7 million years ago. The better-known Peking Man, from near Beijing, lived about 700,000 to 400,000 years ago and was found in the Zhoukoudian cave. The earliest modern humans found in China lived about 120,000 to 80,000 years ago, based on teeth found in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan. The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago. Because it is defined by farming, it started at different times in different regions. Farming grew slowly, starting with a few grains and animals. The earliest cultivated rice found by the Yangtze River is about 8,000 years old, and early millet farming in the Yellow River valley dates to about 7000 BC. With farming came bigger populations and the ability to store and share crops. Pigs and dogs were the first animals to be tamed, and peaches, cherries and oranges were also domesticated in Neolithic China.

Bronze objects have been found at the Majiayao culture site. Sanxingdui, in what is now Sichuan, is believed to be the site of a major ancient city from a previously unknown Bronze Age culture. The site was first discovered in 1929 and rediscovered in 1986. The earliest period once considered historical is the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. In this period, the abdication system was common. Yao gave his throne to Shun, who gave it to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.

Ancient China

See also: Outline of ancient China

Later Chinese historians were used to one dynasty following another, but early China was more complicated. Some scholars suggest that the Xia dynasty and the Shang dynasty may have existed at the same time, just as the early Zhou existed alongside the Shang. The Xia is often seen as mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually linked to the Erlitou site, which was excavated in 1959. No writing has been found there to prove the Xia existed. The Bamboo Annals and Sima Qian's Shiji describe the Xia, and the Shang are confirmed by oracle bones and bronzes. The Shang's final capital was at Yinxu, near modern Anyang, during the Late Shang period, and the leading idea is that Anyang traded with other cultures in China proper, such as Sanxingdui. The Shang dynasty was ruled by at least twenty-nine kings, and Wu Ding moved the capital to Yin about 1250 BC.

The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, although its power slowly declined. A coalition led by King Wu defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The Zhou kings used the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule, and the Zhou had two capitals, Zongzhou near modern Xi'an and Chengzhou in Luoyang. In 771 BC, King You was defeated at the Battle of Mount Li, and the Spring and Autumn period began, named after the Spring and Autumn Annals. During this time, many small settlement states fought for hegemony, and the bigger states took over the smaller ones. Famous thinkers such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived then, and the Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy started, including Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism. Later, during the Warring States period, seven strong states remained. The state of Qin grew strongest and finally united the others, and its ruler Ying Zheng became China's first emperor, known as Qin Shi Huang.

Imperial China

See also: Chinese Empire and Political systems of Imperial China

Main article: Qin dynasty

Main article: Han dynasty

Main article: Xin dynasty

Main article: Three Kingdoms

Main article: Jin dynasty (266–420)

Main article: Sixteen Kingdoms

Main article: Northern and Southern dynasties

Main article: Sui dynasty

Main article: Tang dynasty

Main article: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period

Main articles: Song dynasty, Liao dynasty, Western Xia, and Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Main article: Yuan dynasty

Main article: Ming dynasty

Main article: Qing dynasty

In 221 BC, Ying Zheng founded the Qin dynasty, which made the region a true empire for the first time in Chinese history. He called himself Shi Huangdi, or "First Emperor," and the empire was run from Xianyang as a centralized government. Its people were often forced into labor for huge projects, including parts of the Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Army. The Qin dynasty fell in 207 BC, and the Han dynasty followed. The Han period, from 206 BC to AD 220, is often seen as a golden age. Under Emperor Wu, the empire grew, Confucianism became the official philosophy, and the Silk Road opened trade with the west. After the short-lived Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han restored the dynasty. The Three Kingdoms period followed, and the Jin dynasty briefly reunited the country in 280. Northern China then split into many states, and the Northern and Southern dynasties ruled the two halves of the country. The Sui dynasty reunified China in 589 and built the Grand Canal. The Tang dynasty that followed was another golden age, with rich culture, poetry, and trade. After a long period of division in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the Song dynasty reunified most of China proper in 979. The Song is remembered for its advances in science, technology, and trade.

The Yuan dynasty was proclaimed in 1271 by Kublai Khan, a Mongol ruler, and became the first conquest dynasty to rule all of China. Its capital was at Khanbaliq, also known as Dadu, which is modern-day Beijing. The Yuan fell after years of unrest and rebellion. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming dynasty, and the capital was later moved to Beijing. The Ming built much of the Great Wall that remains today. In 1644, the Qing dynasty, founded by the Manchus, took control of China and became the last imperial dynasty. In the 19th century, the Qing faced rebellions, such as the Taiping Rebellion, and defeats by foreign powers, including the First Opium War. The Boxer Uprising in 1900 led to another war with foreign nations. Reform efforts followed, and the Wuchang uprising began in 1911. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule.

Modern period

The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing in 1912, and Sun Yat-sen became President of the Republic of China. He handed power to Yuan Shikai, who later tried to make himself emperor. After his death in 1916, China fell into the Warlord Era, when rival military leaders and the Beiyang government ruled different parts of the country. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement grew into a nationwide protest. In the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen worked with the Chinese Communist Party, but after his death Chiang Kai-shek turned against the Communists. The Communists began the Long March and later were led by Mao Zedong. China fought Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and Communists continued. By 1949 the Communists controlled most of the country, and the Nationalist government moved to Taipei on Taiwan.

On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. Its history was shaped by campaigns and five-year plans, including the Great Leap Forward, which caused tens of millions of deaths, and the Cultural Revolution, which caused major upheaval in Chinese society. After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping led the country toward reform and opening up. In 1989, the Tiananmen Square protests ended in fatalities. In the 1990s and 2000s, China grew economically and joined the World Trade Organization. British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau became special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China. Since 2017, the government has been accused of detaining many Uyghurs in internment camps. In 2019, the SARS-CoV-2 virus was first detected in Wuhan, leading to a global pandemic.