Yuan dynasty

The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China. It was established by Kublai, the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, and lasted from 1271 to 1368 AD. This dynasty was special because it was the first time a group other than the Han people ruled all of China proper.

Although the Mongol Empire had controlled parts of China for many years, it wasn't until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially started the Yuan dynasty. He declared this new dynasty in the traditional Chinese style and finished conquering the rest of China by 1279. After that, his rule covered most of modern-day China and nearby areas.

Kublai Khan saw himself as the ruler not just of China but also as the Great Khan of the whole Mongol Empire. He even put his grandfather, Genghis Khan, on the records as the founder of the dynasty. Some of the Yuan emperors could speak and write Chinese, while others used their native Mongolian language with a special script called the ʼPhags-pa script.

Name

See also: Names of China and Mongol Empire

In 1271, Kublai Khan named his new dynasty the Great Yuan. The name comes from an ancient Chinese book called the I Ching. In Mongolian, the dynasty was also called Dai Ön Ulus.

At the time, the leaders of the Yuan dynasty wanted to be seen as the true rulers of all of China and the whole Mongol Empire. Some people today also call the Yuan dynasty the "Mongol dynasty" because it was led by Mongol rulers.

History

Main article: History of the Yuan dynasty

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Yuan dynasty.

Background

Main articles: Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, Division of the Mongol Empire, Toluid Civil War, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty

Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops.

Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor at the Siege of Diaoyucheng. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire.

Rule of Kublai Khan

Early years

Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to the prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses. Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became the empress of the Yuan dynasty. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.

Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron. He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of the Song dynasty and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous.

Founding the dynasty

Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu, now modern Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty is first attested in the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都; Dàdū; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.

Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting the Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper jiaochao banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.

Military conquests and campaigns

After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China.

The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou, which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the Ming dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Three Kingdoms era king Huoji who legendarily helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.

In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou (杭州), the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song. Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.

The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).

Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon. Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa, and Java, but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma. The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.

Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.

Successors after Kublai

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Yuan emperors.

Further information: List of Northern Yuan khans and Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)

Temür Khan

Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing-era governments, principally in the province of Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin, as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, succeeded the throne and ruled as Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.

Külüg Khan

Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.

Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan

The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs, which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.

Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür

The Cloud Platform was created during the reign of Emperor Huizong by imperial command.

Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi (《大元通制》; ''Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan''), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide.

Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.

Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

Main article: Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdi­cated in favour of his brother Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.

Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (奎章閣學士院), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" (儒教推崇). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian (經世大典). Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism.

Toghon Temür

Main article: Toghon Temür

After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from exile in Koryo and succeeded to the throne. While the influential El Temür had been central to the exilment of Toghon Temür, after his return the also influential Bayan tried to use the new emperor to deepen his influence. After a coup of Bayan against El Timür and the latters death, Tugh Temür 1340 allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. This was also the time in which the now adult emperor began to take an active part in the government.

Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.

Decline of the empire

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some Yuan royal family members still live in Henan today.

The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Impact

During the Yuan dynasty, many new ideas and traditions grew and changed. The Yuan people loved drama and stories, and they wrote many new books. They also brought new kinds of art and painting to China. The Yuan helped people from far away trade with China, bringing new foods like carrots and lemons, and new ideas from other places.

The Yuan also built many things to help people. They made new roads and canals for travel and trade. They built big lakes and parks in their cities. One famous traveler, Marco Polo, visited China and told people in Europe about what he saw. The Yuan dynasty was the first time a group of people from outside of China ruled the whole country.

Government

The Yuan dynasty's government began taking shape when Kublai Khan ruled from 1260 to 1294. The government structure changed a little over time, but the main parts stayed the same until the dynasty ended in 1368.

Kublai Khan mixed many cultures into the government, including Hans, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and Tibetan Buddhists. Even though it looked like a typical Chinese government, it actually used ideas from many different places. The Yuan government had three main parts: civil, military, and censorial offices. The Central Secretariat handled civil matters, the Privy Council managed the military, and the Censorate checked on everyone. However, the Mongols often used military offices for many tasks, which made the civil and military parts overlap a lot.

Some ministries, like the Ministry of Justice, did not apply to Mongols and others called Semu. Cases with people from different groups were decided by a mix of Chinese and Mongols. The Ministry of War was not very important because military power was really in the hands of the Privy Council.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty

Mathematics

Further information: Chinese mathematics

During the Yuan dynasty, big steps were taken in math. The mathematician Zhu Shijie solved hard math problems with several unknowns by using a special way to simplify them. He wrote about this in a book called Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, which also showed a famous math pattern called Pascal's triangle.

Another math expert, Guo Shoujing, used math to help make better calendars. He made a special calendar called Shoushi Li in 1281 that helped people know when important events would happen.

Medicine

Doctors in the Yuan dynasty came from many different places. They used herbs and special treatments to help people feel better. The government helped doctors and even started a special school for medicine. Chinese ways of healing, like acupuncture and using special plants, spread to other parts of the world as the empire grew.

Printing and publishing

The Yuan rulers liked books and helped make many of them. They used two ways to print: one with blocks made from wood and another with small pieces that could be moved around. They even printed special paper money called Jiaochao. Schools and governments got help to print books for everyone.

Ceramics

The Yuan dynasty was a busy time for making beautiful ceramics. A big new style was created where blue and white designs were painted under the glaze on pottery. This style became very popular and was sent to many places far away.

Society

See also: Society of the Mongol Empire, Yuan poetry, and Zaju

Imperial lifestyle

Since its invention in 1269, a special writing system for spelling Mongolian, Tibetan, and Chinese languages was used in the royal court until the dynasty ended. Most emperors could not read written Chinese, but they could usually speak it well. The Mongols kept their royal family pure by marrying within certain Mongol clans, but they also took wives from many different backgrounds to avoid creating rivals. The emperors built large palaces but sometimes lived like nomads. One emperor, Tugh Temur, supported culture by writing poetry, painting, reading Chinese books, and ordering the writing of new books.

Regular Mongol families in the Yuan dynasty lived quietly in the countryside. They earned money from farming but spent much of it preparing and sending men for duty. The Mongols sometimes forced common people into situations where they had to give up their children. To stop this, the ruler Kublai made a rule in 1291 that Mongols could not be sold abroad. Kublai wanted to show that he was becoming more like the Chinese while still keeping his Mongol identity. He created a civilian government, built a capital in China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and made new economic and political rules. Still, he never gave up his Mongol roots.^{: 488–489} 

Religion

See also: Islam during the Yuan dynasty and Religion in the Mongol Empire

Many religions were practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Manichaeism. The number of Muslims in China grew a lot after the Yuan dynasty began. Kublai Khan, the founder, favored Buddhism, especially Tibetan Buddhism, which became the main religion. A special government office was created in Beijing to oversee Buddhist monks. Kublai and his successors kept a special Buddhist leader at court from the Sakya sect.

The Mongols brought in Muslims from Central Asia to work as administrators in China, and they sent Chinese and Khitan people to work in Central Asia. This helped control both areas.

Kublai Khan and later emperors made rules that restricted some Muslim and Jewish practices, such as certain ways of preparing food. These rules caused some tension.

Four-class system

Structure

The Mongols divided people into four groups based on when they surrendered to the Mongols and how much they were trusted:

1. Mongols. They were called the ruling citizens.
2. Semu, non-Mongol foreigners from the west and Central Asia.
3. Han, which included various peoples from Northern China and nearby areas.
4. Nan (Southerners), people from the former Southern Song dynasty. They had the least privileges.

People were placed in these groups based on their loyalty to the Mongols, not their ethnicity. Those who surrendered earlier were ranked higher.

Foreign administrators

The Mongols used people from different regions to manage parts of their empire. Central Asian Muslims worked in China, while Han people and Khitans worked in Central Asia. This helped control both areas.

Anti-Chinese policies

The government system was a mix of Mongol traditions and Chinese bureaucracy. However, Chinese elites were not given as much respect as before. The Mongols and Semu people had advantages, and this continued even after exams for government jobs were brought back. Very few Chinese reached the highest government positions compared to people from other groups.

Anti-Semu policies

Some rules made life hard for Muslims and others. These rules included restrictions on certain religious practices. Over time, this led to rebellions. Some Muslim leaders joined forces with others to fight against the Mongols.

Criticism

One historian noted that the four-class system did not always reflect actual wealth or power. Some Chinese were rich and respected, while some Mongols and Semu lived in poverty. Some Japanese historians question whether the Semu class even existed as a true group.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty

See also: Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia

The Yuan dynasty was split into different areas to make managing the land easier. The most important part was called the Central Region, which included places like modern-day Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, parts of Inner Mongolia, and Henan north of the Yellow River. This area was directly controlled by a group of leaders in Khanbaliq, which is now Beijing.

Other areas were managed by groups called Branch Secretariats or provinces. There were eleven of these main areas, each with its own leaders who reported back to the main leaders in the Central Region. These areas were then split into smaller parts like circuits, routes, prefectures, and counties to help with local management. This way of organizing the land was used later by other Chinese dynasties, like the Ming dynasty.