Northern Yuan

The Northern Yuan was a dynastic state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan, based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. It lasted until it was conquered in 1635 by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, which was later renamed the Qing dynasty.

The Northern Yuan began when the Yuan imperial court, led by Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong of Yuan), retreated to the Mongolian steppe. This period featured struggles between different groups, and the Great Khan often had only a nominal role.

In the late 15th century, Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited most of the Mongol tribes. However, Dayan Khan shared his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs, which caused the imperial rule to become more decentralized. Even so, the Dayan Khanid nobles remained largely united, and civil war between members of the Chinggisid family was unknown until the reign of Ligdan Khan (1604–1634). Ligdan Khan lost much of his power in quarrels with the Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty. The last sixty years of this period saw Tibetan Buddhism spread deeply into Mongol society.

The name "Northern Yuan" is a naming convention used by historians for convenience. The dynastic name "Great Yuan" was abandoned by Jorightu Khan Yesüder in 1388, but some Mongol leaders continued to use the name Great Yuan from time to time until the early 17th century.

Name

The period from 1368 to 1635 has several names. The name "Great Yuan" (Chinese: 大元; pinyin: Dà Yuán) was officially used from 1368 to 1388, as was the earlier Yuan dynasty. After Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür died, his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder dropped the "Great Yuan" name and Han-style imperial titles, so "Northern Yuan" is sometimes used only for the years 1368 to 1388. The name comes from the Chinese term 北元, where "Northern" separates this regime from the Yuan dynasty founded in 1271. The name first appeared in the Korean text Goryeosa, which was written in Classical Chinese.

Some scholars believe that Dayan Khan's name "Dayan" came from "Great Yuan." There is also evidence that Taisun Khan, Esen Taishi, Manduul Khan, and Ligdan Khan used the "Great Yuan" name and Han-style titles into the early 1600s. In English, "Northern Yuan (dynasty)" covers the whole period from 1368 to 1635. The Mongols called their state "Yeke Mongghol Ulus," meaning "Great Mongol State." Some modern sources also call it "Post-Imperial Mongolia," the "Mongol(ian) Khaganate," or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate," though these terms can also refer to the Mongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty. Mongolian chronicles call this period "The Forty and the Four," meaning forty tümen of Eastern Mongols and four tümen of Western Mongols. The Chinese Ming dynasty called them "Tatar" and "Wala" after the Mongols split into eastern and western parts.

History

See also: Timeline of the Northern Yuan

See also: Four Oirat

The Northern Yuan was the remnant of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded by Kublai Khan. Yuan rule in China began to collapse in 1344, when the Yellow River flooded. In 1368, a Ming army advanced on the Yuan capital Khanbaliq or Dadu (present-day Beijing). The last Yuan ruler, Toghon Temür, fled north to Shangdu and died in Yingchang in 1370. The Mongols then retreated to Karakorum, where they kept the title "Great Yuan," later known as the "Northern Yuan." Mongol leaders fought over power for many years. In 1388, Jorightu Khan Yesüder took the throne with the support of the Oirats, and the Oirats became very powerful. Under Esen Taishi, they captured the Zhengtong Emperor in 1449 in what became known as the Tumu Crisis. Esen was killed in 1455 after revolts, and the Oirats declined for a time.

Later, Dayan Khan helped reunite the Mongols and pressed the Ming dynasty for many years. He divided the Mongols into tümens, which were given to his sons. After his death, the Mongols split again. In 1575, many Mongols in the Right Wing Tumens converted to Tibetan Buddhism, and in 1577 Altan and Sechen received the 3rd Dalai Lama. By the reign of Ligdan Khan, the Eastern Mongol tumens no longer worked as one unit. The Jurchens, led by Nurhaci and later Hong Taiji, rose to power and defeated Ligdan's forces. Ligdan died in 1634, and his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing dynasty and gave up the Imperial Seal of the Mongols in February 1635. This ended the Kublaid-descended Northern Yuan.

Aftermath

See also: Dzungar–Qing Wars

By 1636, the Manchus had conquered all of Inner Mongolia, and the successors of the Mongol Empire were also under Manchu authority. Ejei, the son of Ligdan Khan, died under mysterious circumstances. His rank passed to his brother Abunai, who refused to attend court with the Manchus, and then to Abunai's son Burni, who rebelled in 1675 but was defeated and died in battle. In Outer Mongolia, Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj kept his independence, though Altan Khan of the Khalkha also emerged in Jasagtu territory. In 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the spiritual head of the Gelug Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj tried to keep peace with the Manchus by sending tribute, and he stopped providing horses to the Ming dynasty. Talks failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming in 1644 and seized Beijing. In 1647, Gombodorj met the Qing in battle, and neither side won. Later, Gombodorj died in the mid-17th century and was succeeded by his young son Chikhundorj. In 1655, the Qing began appointing their own lamas in Tusheet lands, and Outer Mongolia gradually came under Qing control.

Around 1600–1620, the Oirats united under Kharkhul. In 1635, Kharkhul's son Erdeni Batur formed the Dzungar Khanate, partly because of their wars with the Altan Khans. Galdan Boshugtu Khan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare for an attack. In 1687, Chikhundorj attacked the Khalkhas and killed Shira. In 1688, Galdan's younger brother Dorji-jav was defeated, and Chikhundorj then defeated the Khalkhas near Lake Baikal, where the Siberian Cossacks were also fighting. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 troops into Outer Mongolia and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. After more battles near Erdene Zuu Monastery, Chikhundorj and his brother Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor. By 1690, Galdan controlled Outer Mongolia, but the Kangxi Emperor blocked his advance toward Beijing. Galdan was defeated at the Battle of Ulan Butung and the Battle of Jao Modo. In 1697, he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd. His nephew Tsewang Rabtan was already in control of Dzungaria. Outer Mongolia then became part of the Qing Empire, and a Qing garrison was placed at Ulaanbaatar. The Dzungars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan, but the Qing conquered them in 1755, and all resistance was crushed by 1758.