Electric car

This article is about electric automobiles. For all types of electric transportation, see Electric vehicle.

An electric car is an automobile that uses electrical energy as its main source of propulsion. The term usually refers to a plug-in electric vehicle, typically a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which only uses energy stored in on-board battery packs. More broadly, it may also include a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), a range-extended electric vehicle (REEV), and a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), which can turn electric power from other fuels into electricity using a generator or a fuel cell. Examples of modern all-electric cars include the Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf, Hyundai Ioniq 5, BMW i3, and BYD Atto 3.

Compared with conventional cars that have an internal combustion engine (ICE), battery electric cars are quieter, more responsive, and more energy-efficient. They produce no exhaust emissions and generally have lower life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions. How big the climate benefit is depends on factors including the vehicle, the electricity mix, manufacturing, and lifetime use. Because electric motors are very efficient, electric cars also give off less waste heat. This means they need fewer engine cooling systems, which are often large, complicated, and need a lot of maintenance in ICE vehicles.

The battery of an electric car is usually recharged by connecting it to an external electricity supply. Charging can be done at different kinds of charging stations, which can be installed in private homes, parking garages, and public areas. Scientists and companies also carry out research and development on other technologies, such as battery swapping and inductive charging. In some areas, recharging centers, especially fast chargers, are widespread. Even so, range anxiety (worry about running out of power) and the time needed to charge are psychological obstacles for some people considering the purchase of an electric car.

Worldwide, 21 million plug-in electric cars were sold in 2025. This made up over a quarter of new car sales and was a 20% increase from 2024. Many countries have set up government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, including tax credits, subsidies, and other non-money incentives. Several countries have also passed laws to phase out sales of fossil fuel cars. These efforts aim to reduce air pollution and limit climate change.

China currently has the largest stock of electric vehicles in the world, with cumulative sales of 22.09 million units through December 2024. These figures also include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such as buses, garbage trucks, and sanitation vehicles, and only count vehicles made in China. As of 2020, the total cost of owning recent electric vehicles in the United States and the European Union was lower than that of similar ICE cars, because of lower power and maintenance costs. In 2023, the Tesla Model Y became the world's best-selling car. The Tesla Model 3 became the world's all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020, and in June 2021 it became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales.

Terminology

See also: Vehicle classification by propulsion system, Plug-in electric vehicle § Terminology, and Battery electric vehicle

The term "electric car" usually means battery electric vehicles (BEVs), also called all-electric cars. These cars have an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, or at home with solar panels. The electricity stored in the car is the only energy source that turns the wheels.

The term generally refers to cars that can travel on highways. There are also low-speed electric vehicles, which have limits on weight, power, and maximum speed, and can drive on certain public roads. In the United States these are called Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs), and in Europe they are called electric motorised quadricycles.

History

Main article: History of the electric vehicle

Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor Robert Anderson developed a crude electric carriage. During the 1880s, several experimental electric cars appeared. In 1881, Gustave Trouvé showed an electric car at the Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris. In 1882, Werner von Siemens presented the Electromote, the world's first trolleybus, in Berlin. In 1888, German inventor Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen, which is seen as the first "real" electric car. Electric cars were popular in the late 1800s and early 1900s because they were comfortable and easy to operate, and about 30,000 vehicles were in use at their peak. In 1897, electric cabs by Walter Bersey in London were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire, at a time when cabs were horse-drawn. Electric cars were later overtaken by internal-combustion engine cars, which could be refuelled more quickly and cost less to make. A turning point came in 1912 with the electric starter motor, which replaced hard and dangerous hand-cranking.

Sales of plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles have grown steadily since the 2010s, and sales of electric cars have pointed away from petrol-powered vehicles since 2012. In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board pushed for cleaner cars, aiming for zero-emissions vehicles, and automakers made electric models that were later withdrawn. In 2004, Tesla Motors began developing the Tesla Roadster, which was delivered to customers in 2008 as the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells. Better Place developed battery charging and battery swapping services but went bankrupt in 2013. The 2009 Mitsubishi i-MiEV was the first highway-legal series production electric car, and the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, quickly became the best-selling all-electric car. Interest grew further as battery technology improved and as people wanted to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and improve air quality in cities, and electric cars in China expanded rapidly with government support. In 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that electric vehicles made up 6% of US light-duty vehicle sales, with California leading.

Economics

EVs usually have a much lower total cost of ownership than petrol cars, which are called ICE vehicles. Electricity generally costs less than petrol per kilometre travelled, and EV motors use energy far more efficiently. Because EVs have a simpler mechanical structure with fewer moving parts, their owners can save about 50% on maintenance and repairs. The main long-term money worry for EV owners is replacing the battery after the warranty ends. A replacement pack typically costs between $5,000 and $16,000, though batteries often last as long as the car and are rarely replaced.

Electric cars were usually a bit more expensive to buy than petrol cars in 2024, but some kinds of EVs were already cheaper. Small EVs in China cost roughly half as much as small petrol cars, and in the UK, EVs had become cheaper to buy than petrol cars by 2026. The battery is the most expensive part of an electric car, and battery prices have fallen a lot since 2010. LFP batteries are cheaper than the more powerful NCM cells.

Environmental aspects

Main articles: Environmental aspects of the electric car and Electric vehicle § Environmental impact

Over their whole life, battery electric cars generally cause far fewer greenhouse gas emissions than similar petrol or diesel cars in most regions today. They are not completely free of emissions. Making the battery and the car usually creates more emissions than making a petrol car, but electric cars are more efficient and the electricity they use usually causes fewer emissions, so these savings make up for it during driving. How big the advantage is depends on the size of the car and battery, how much energy it uses, how the electricity is made, and how far the car is driven. One 2025 study of cars sold in the European Union estimated 73% fewer life-cycle emissions than petrol cars, while a study of the 2023 United States car market estimated a 65% reduction. These numbers are not the same everywhere, because they depend on different markets and assumptions about the future.

Another study of 5,000 pairs of vehicles across 16 regions found that battery electric cars had a lower carbon footprint than hybrid cars in 99% of cases. Exceptions mainly happen where electricity is very polluting or a car is driven too little to make up for the extra emissions from its battery. Electric cars produce no exhaust from the tailpipe, though tyre and road dust remain, and regenerative braking generally reduces brake wear. A lower carbon footprint does not mean zero impact, since electric cars still need materials like lithium and graphite. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says electric vehicles powered by low-emissions electricity have the greatest potential to cut life-cycle emissions from land transport.

Performance

Electric motors have high power-to-weight ratios and can provide high torque, or turning power, from a standing start. Most EVs use a fixed-ratio gearbox and have no clutch. Electric cars can speed up faster than cars with internal combustion engines because they lose less energy to friction in the drivetrain, and the motor's turning power stays steady at low speeds.

Some designs place a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels. Some drag racing EVs that use a direct current motor have two-speed manual transmissions. The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One was claimed to be able to go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in 2.5 seconds.

Energy efficiency

Engines that burn fuel have thermodynamic limits on how well they can work. Efficiency is the share of the fuel's energy that actually moves the vehicle. Petrol engines use only about 15% of their fuel's energy to move the car or power its accessories, and diesel engines can reach about 20%. Electric vehicles send over 77% of their electrical energy to the wheels, although the power needed to move their heavy batteries reduces this a little. Electric motors are more efficient than engines at turning energy into movement. Some cars with two motors use one for most driving and the second for extra power. Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy that is normally lost when braking.

Cars with engines use waste heat from the engine to warm the cabin, while electric vehicles use heat pumps or other technologies to control the cabin temperature. PTC junction cooling was used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster. Some models, such as the Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Renault Zoe, can heat the cabin while the car is plugged in. The Citroën Berlingo Electrique uses an extra heating system, such as a unit that runs on petrol. Cabin cooling can be helped by solar power, external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by letting outside air flow through the car when it is parked. Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius offer this feature.

Safety

EV safety is covered by the international standard ISO 6469, which has three parts: the battery, protection against failures, and electrical hazards. Research published in the British Medical Journal in 2024 reported that between 2013 and 2017 in the United Kingdom, electric cars killed pedestrians at twice the rate of petrol and diesel cars because they are less audible to people in towns and cities. Some places require EVs to make sounds when they move. The batteries make EVs heavier than similar petrol or diesel cars. Heavier cars protect their occupants better, but they can be more dangerous to people outside the car. The battery placed low in a skateboard configuration also helps keep the car steady and lowers the risk of rolling over.

Like other cars, electric vehicles can catch fire after a crash or a mechanical failure. Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents

Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have happened, but there are fewer for each distance travelled than for petrol and diesel cars. Firefighters may need much more water than for other car fires, and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re-ignition of battery fires.

Controls

As of 2018, most electric cars have driving controls similar to a car with a conventional automatic transmission. The motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed gear, and there may be no parking pawl. Even so, the "P" and "N" settings are often still on the selector. In "N" the motor is turned off, and an electrically operated hand brake provides the "P" setting.

In some cars, the motor turns slowly in "D" to create a small amount of creep, like a traditional automatic car. Many owners can turn creep off. Creep makes one-pedal driving possible, so the car can often stop when the driver takes their foot off the gas pedal. In a car with an engine, releasing the gas pedal may slow the car through engine braking, depending on the transmission and mode. Electric cars usually have regenerative braking, which slows the car and recharges the battery somewhat. It also reduces the use of the regular brakes, so they wear out less and need less upkeep.

Batteries

Main article: Electric vehicle battery

Electric cars often use lithium iron phosphate batteries, which do not need nickel and cobalt, so they can help make cheaper cars. Lithium-ion batteries are often used because they store a lot of power for their size. How far an electric car can travel depends on its batteries, its shape and weight, how it is used, and the weather. Cars made mainly for city driving often have small batteries to keep them light. Most electric cars show an expected range on a display, but this can differ from the real range because conditions change along the way. Some roadside assistance groups offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in an emergency.

Further information: List of electric cars currently available

Most electric cars use a wired connection to recharge. Plugs are not the same everywhere, but adapters let many cars use other types of charging stations. The Type 2 connector is the most common, though different versions are used in China and Europe. The Type 1 (also called SAE J1772) connector is common in North America but rare elsewhere, because it does not support three-phase charging. Wireless charging, either for parked cars or as an electric road, is less common, but some cities use it for taxis. Most electric cars are charged overnight at a home charging station, which is often plugged into a garage or the outside of a house. Many home chargers can use smart charging. Public charging stations can be faster than home chargers, with many supplying direct current. The Combined Charging System (CCS) is the most widespread standard, the GB/T 27930 standard is used in China, and CHAdeMO is used in Japan. The United States has no single standard, and uses a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO stations. Some companies are building battery swapping stations to greatly reduce recharging time. Some electric cars, such as the BMW i3, have an optional petrol range extender meant only as an emergency backup to reach the next charging point.

Main article: Electric vehicle charging network

Main article: IEC 62196

Main article: Vehicle-to-grid

During peak load times, when electricity is very expensive to make, electric vehicles that can send power back to the grid could help supply energy. They can then recharge during off-peak hours, when power is cheaper, which also helps use extra power made at night. The batteries in these vehicles act like a shared storage system. A 2022 report from Stanford University questioned whether charging electric cars at night is a wise choice.

Main article: Rechargeable battery § Lifespan and cycle stability

Like all lithium-ion batteries, electric car batteries slowly wear out over long periods, especially if they are often charged to 100%, though this may take several years to notice. A typical warranty covers 8 years or 100,000 mi (160,000 km). Many drivers may not reach that distance, and batteries often last 15 to 20 years in the car and more years in other uses.

Currently available electric cars

Main article: List of production battery electric vehicles

Tesla was the world's leading electric vehicle maker from December 2019 to 2023. Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016, and the Model Y was the top selling plug-in car in 2022. The Tesla Model 3 passed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's best selling electric car overall. BYD Auto is another leading maker, with most of its sales in China. In the fourth quarter of 2023, BYD passed Tesla as the top-selling electric vehicle maker. Other leading makers include GAC Aion, SAIC Motor, Geely, and Volkswagen. Sales of plug-in electric passenger cars in the world's top markets were tracked from 2011 to 2023.

The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 300,000 units:

In 2021, about 16.5 million electric cars were on the world's roads. China has the largest all-electric car fleet, with 2.58 million at the end of 2019, which was more than half (53.9%) of the world's electric car stock. All-electric cars have outsold plug-in hybrids since 2012.

A 2022 survey found that 33% of car buyers in Europe will choose a petrol or diesel car when buying a new vehicle, while 67% said they would choose a hybrid or electric version. Electric cars were the least preferred type, chosen by 28% of Europeans. Many Europeans preferred hybrid vehicles (39%) or petrol or diesel vehicles (33%). Chinese car buyers were the most likely to buy an electric car, at 44%. In the EU, 47% of buyers aged 65 or older were likely to buy a hybrid, and 13% of people do not plan to own a vehicle at all.

Opinions also vary in other ways. In a 2023 survey of US car buyers, 50% of people planning a future car said they were unlikely to seriously consider an electric car, and support for banning non-electric vehicle production by 2035 fell from 47% to 40%. Tension between electric car owners and petrol car owners, along with misinformation, has also shaped how people feel. Public views differ by place: in Europe, environmental concerns are pushing people toward electric cars, while in the U.S., cost and range worries are major barriers. In China, government support has helped build confidence. Norway leads the way, with 9 of 10 cars sold there being electric, thanks to tax rebates and a widespread charging network.

Government policies and incentives

Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles

See also: Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles

Many national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to help more people buy plug-in electric vehicles. These policies can include money to help buyers and car makers, perks that do not involve money, help paying for charging stations, rules that require charging points in some buildings, and long-term rules with specific goals. Financial help often includes one-time payments such as grants and tax credits, and it can also mean not paying some import duties, road tolls, congestion charges, or yearly registration fees. Perks can include using bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, and free parking and charging. Some places that limit car use, or that have driving restrictions, leave electric vehicles out of those limits. Countries such as England and India are also introducing rules for charging stations in certain buildings.

Some governments have set long-term goals, such as zero-emissions vehicle rules, limits on CO₂ emissions, strict fuel economy standards, and plans to phase out sales of petrol and diesel cars. For example, Norway set a goal that by 2025 all new car sales should be battery electric or hydrogen cars. These policies aim to help drivers switch away from petrol and diesel cars more quickly. Some economists, however, say they can create extra costs, known as deadweight loss, in the electric car market, which may cancel out some environmental gains. Some researchers also say that government help for private electric cars can lower overall carbon emissions, but it can also share resources unevenly and place extra transport burdens on certain groups of people.

Geopolitics

China has become the leading force in making electric vehicles (EVs). This has turned the EV industry into a place of geopolitical strategy and trade friction. The European Union and the U.S. have introduced protective trade measures, citing reasons such as dumping, state subsidies, too much production, national security, and forced labor. Critics argue that these claims are a justification for protectionism.

China's strong position came from decades of industrial planning that aimed for global leadership in EVs. While many Western and Japanese carmakers focused on improving gasoline engines, Chinese leaders focused on EVs, building up technology, factories, and demand. This allows Chinese companies to sell EVs at lower prices. After Chinese EVs began selling widely in Europe and North America, the European Commission voted to add countervailing duties on imports of Chinese-made battery electric vehicles. During the first presidency of Donald Trump, the U.S. placed a 27.5 percent tariff on Chinese cars, and in May 2024 it raised the import tariff on Chinese EVs to 100%. Chinese manufacturers have since shifted their focus toward price-sensitive markets such as Southeast Asia and Latin America.

Forecasts

Deloitte predicted that total global sales of electric vehicles (EVs) would reach 31.1 million in 2030. The International Energy Agency predicted that the total number of EVs in the world would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies, or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted.

As of 2024, over 700 million people do not have electricity, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank and the African Development Bank plan to give 300 million people in that region access to electricity by 2030. Right now, there are just over 20,000 electric vehicles and fewer than 1,000 charging stations in Africa. However, car makers have already built, or are planning to build, factories in 21 African countries.