History of Bangladesh

The history of Bangladesh goes back more than four thousand years to the Chalcolithic period. Early on, the area was ruled by Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires that competed for control of the Bengal region. In the 8th century, Islam arrived, and it became the main religion by the early 1300s after leaders like Bakhtiyar Khalji and missionaries such as Shah Jalal helped spread it. Muslim leaders built many mosques and promoted Islam across the land.

From the 14th century, the Bengal Sultanate ruled the area, starting with Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, who created its own money. Under leaders like Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, the sultanate grew strong and rich, and Europeans called Bengal the richest place to trade with. Later, the area became part of the huge Mughal Empire and was probably its richest province.

After the Mughal Empire weakened in the 1700s, Bengal became almost independent under the Nawabs of Bengal, ending with Siraj ud-Daulah. The British East India Company took control after winning the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal was important for Britain’s Industrial Revolution but also lost much of its own industry. The Bengal Presidency was set up under British rule.

When British rule ended in 1947, the area became East Pakistan as part of the new State of Pakistan. In March 1971, people proclaimed independence, leading to a nine-month Bangladesh Liberation War and the birth of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Since then, the country has seen changes in government, economic growth, and challenges such as political unrest and climate change. It has also been important in regional issues, like the Rohingya refugee crisis.

Ancient period

Further information: Gangaridai, Magadha, Pundravardhana, Varendra, Anga, Vanga Kingdom, Harikela, and Samatata

Prehistoric Bengal

See also: South Asian Bronze Age

Long ago, people moved into the area we now call Bengal. There isn’t much proof of very old human life there, perhaps because rivers changed their paths over time. The climate and land in Bengal aren’t good for keeping things like stones, wood, or bamboo, which early people might have used. Because of this, scientists know less about very old times in Bengal compared to other places in South Asia.

By around 500 BCE, farms grew well, leading to towns, trade with faraway lands, and the first small governments. At a place called Wari-Bateshwar, archaeologists found signs of trade with Ancient Rome and Southeast Asia. They discovered coins, pottery, iron tools, roads, and a fort. This area seems to have been an important center for trade and making things like iron and beads.

Gangaridai/Nanda Empire

Main articles: Gangaridai and Nanda dynasty

In the time of Alexander the Great in 326 BCE, Bengal became well-known again. Writers from Greece and Rome said Alexander decided to leave India because he was worried about fighting the strong Gangaridai empire in Bengal. Big battles were being planned, but Alexander chose to go home instead.

Gangaridai stayed powerful for many years, at least until the first century CE. Some stories say the Nanda leaders came from the Gangaridai or Vanga people of Bengal.

Early Middle Ages

Bengal stood alone after the Mauryan Empire's power faded. Local leaders kept control while paying respect to the Gupta Empire in the 300s and 400s. The land became known as Samatata, with its center near today’s Chandpur. Evidence shows rulers like Gopachandra led in the early 500s. Many dynasties came and went over the centuries, ruling from places in modern Comilla and Dhaka areas.

By the 6th century, the Gupta Empire broke apart. Eastern Bengal split into smaller kingdoms, and the Gauda kings rose in the west. Shashanka, a leader who broke free from Gupta control, united Bengal’s smaller areas but faced pressure from nearby powers. The Pala Empire later took control, supporting Buddhism and expanding Bengal’s influence far and wide. They ruled until the middle of the twelfth century, after which new leaders like the Senas took over. The Senas promoted Brahminism and changed many traditions in Bengal.

Late Middle Ages

Main article: Bengal Sultanate

In the year 1202, Muslim leaders began ruling parts of Bangladesh after capturing a place called Nadia. At first, these leaders were governed by rulers far away in Delhi, but soon they started ruling on their own. Leaders from Afghanistan and Central Asia helped spread Islam in the area.

Bangladesh saw many changes in leadership over the centuries. Different groups, such as the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire, took control. Local leaders also rose to power, creating their own rules and building impressive structures. Even though many leaders were Muslim, many people in the area still followed Hindu traditions.

During this time, new leaders often took power after battles or family disputes. Some leaders even came from faraway places like Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia). The area grew and changed with new rulers bringing new ideas and ways of governing.

Bengal Sultanate

Main article: Bengal Sultanate

The Bengal Sultanate was a time when leaders ruled a big area that is now Bangladesh and parts of India. One important family, the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, started in 1342 and lasted until 1487. They built many important buildings and helped Bengali culture grow strong. They also made sure Bengal stayed independent from other rulers trying to take over.

Another important family was the Hussain Shahi dynasty, which ruled from 1494 to 1538. They helped make many cultural achievements and expanded their rule to places like Chittagong. They also made treaties to keep their land safe from outside invaders.

Mughal period

Main article: Bengal Subah

The Mughal period in Bangladesh was a time of great change and growth. In 1576, the Mughal leader Akbar won a big battle and took control of Bengal. He worked hard to bring peace to the area, appointing a leader named Raja Man Singh to help govern.

From about 1590 until the mid-1700s, Bengal was one of the richest parts of the Mughal Empire. It was famous for its valuable products like rice, silk, and cotton cloth. Many people around the world depended on goods from Bengal.

Some local leaders, called the Bara Bhuiyan, tried to resist Mughal rule. They fought many battles but were eventually brought under control. Dhaka grew in importance and became a main city for the Mughals in the late 1500s. It became a center for trade and government.

Two important Mughal leaders helped shape Bengal during this time. Islam Khan was appointed governor in 1608 and worked to bring all of Bengal under Mughal control. He fought against local leaders and expanded Mughal rule. Later, Shaista Khan served as governor for nearly 24 years, starting in 1664. He is best known for recapturing Chittagong in 1666, which brought peace to the area after attacks by pirates.

During Mughal rule, many people moved into eastern Bengal and helped clear forests to grow rice. This brought new communities together and changed the way people lived in the region.

Nawabs of Bengal

Main article: Nawabs of Bengal

As the Mughal Empire grew weaker, it stopped sending leaders to Bengal by 1713. In 1715, the capital moved to Murshidabad, which caused Dhaka to lose importance. This change happened when Murshid Quli Khan, the main tax officer, moved his office to Murshidabad and became the governor.

Murshid Quli Khan wanted to create a line of leaders called nawabs. After he passed away, his family took over. Later, Alivardi Khan started his own family of nawabs. He worked with a local leader to become governor and also took control of Orissa. However, he had trouble with raiders from the Maratha areas.

Alivardi Khan successfully defended against the first three attacks from the Marathas. But when they attacked again in 1751, he made a peace agreement. He gave control of Orissa to the Maratha Empire and agreed to pay a certain amount every year. When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, his grandson Sirajuddaulah took over. He tried to stop uncontrolled trading, which led to conflicts with British merchants. By 1757, the British defeated him, and by 1764, they controlled Bengal and areas to the west.

Colonial era

Europeans in Bengal

In 1517, the Portuguese set up a small base at Chittagong. They also created a settlement at Satgaon. In 1579, they built another station at Hooghly after getting permission from Akbar. They traded and spread their ideas until 1632 when they were asked to leave by Shah Jahan, though they were allowed back the next year. This was because of problems caused by pirates. By 1651, the British took control of Hooghly. The Portuguese left the area.

The Portuguese traded through their government, but other Europeans used companies. The Dutch set up a place at Chinsura but focused more on areas in Southeast Asia. In 1825, they gave Chinsura to the British for posts in Southeast Asia. In 1755, the Danes built a station at Serampore, which the British bought in 1845. The French company stayed longer and was second only to the British, who eventually took over.

The British built trading posts in several places. In 1681, they set up an important area, and in 1690, Job Charnock founded Calcutta. During this time, they often argued with local leaders. In 1652, they were allowed to trade without extra taxes, but later had to pay fees which they did not like. They met with a local leader in Dhaka and got their rights back.

British trading grew during this leader's time. Another leader did not like the British and French plans and challenged their rights. His successor decided to remove foreign control. In 1756, he took over Calcutta and held the British people there. Robert Clive and his soldiers took Calcutta back in 1757. Clive made a deal with the leader's relative, Mir Jafar, and fought the leader. Mir Jafar did not support the leader during the battle, and he was defeated and killed. Many think this battle marked the beginning of British rule in the area, which lasted until 1947.

After winning the battle, the British made Bengal the center of their growing control. They gained full control when they were given charge of collecting taxes in 1765, keeping some ties with the old rulers. This marked the start of British colonialism in the area.

British rule

The British wanted to make Bengal's economy stronger. They tried new ways to manage and run things, but some did not work well. Higher taxes caused big problems, especially during bad weather in 1769–1770, leading to a serious shortage of food and many deaths.

The old ruling system broke down, and the main local leader became the main ruler. The British took over more land, with Cooch Behar keeping its own ruler under British watch. They focused on making money and sent much of it back to Great Britain, which helped start the Industrial Revolution. This also hurt local industries, like textile making.

In 1790, the British started a new way to collect taxes called "permanent settlement." This was an agreement with local leaders called zamindars, who got land in return for paying taxes. The idea was that they would help improve farming, but this did not happen. Instead, it created layers of land control that mostly helped the rich and left farmers with few rights.

During British rule, Muslims were mostly landlords, but Hindus became more important later. This created differences that would matter later. The British changed the official language from Persian to English and started schools, though mostly Hindus took advantage of these changes. They built bridges and railways, improving travel and communication. Despite some attempts at democratic ideas, rule was mostly strict.

Kolkata, known as Calcutta, became very important as a political and cultural center. It was the capital of British India from 1757 to 1931. Many ambitious Bengalis moved there for education and jobs. Old cities like Dhaka and Murshidabad became less important.

British rule faced many uprisings, though serious challenges were rare by the late 1800s. Bengal did not join the big rebellion in 1857. Some local uprisings happened but were not supported by everyone. Most protests were about rights and changes in farming. These protests brought together farmers and city people.

Bengal Renaissance

The Bengal Renaissance was a time of social change in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It included important religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers. This period is seen as a very creative time in Indian history. One notable figure was the national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, who wrote strong poems against British rule and was sometimes put in prison by the British.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

In July 1905, the leader of India announced the Partition of Bengal. It happened on October 16, 1905, splitting the big area of Bengal into two parts: one with mostly Hindu people in the west and another with mostly Muslim people in the east. The eastern part was called Eastern Bengal and Assam, with Dacca as its capital.

The British said they were doing this to make things run better because Bengal was very large and needed better management. However, many people were upset. Hindus in the west felt they would become a smaller group in a larger area that also included Bihar and Orissa. Many Indians saw this as a way to divide people and make them weaker.

The British thought Muslims would support this, and many did. But Hindus were very opposed. This division showed growing differences between Hindus and Muslims. The mainly Hindu leaders started a big campaign against the partition, linking it to their religious identity. They used symbols like the goddess Kali and the song "Vande Mataram" as their anthem, which many Muslims did not agree with.

Tensions rose between Hindus and Muslims, with both sides seeing the other as enemies or helpers of the British. The British later reversed the partition in 1911 and moved the capital to Delhi, which was completed in 1931.

Partition of Bengal (1947)

Main article: Partition of Bengal (1947)

In 1947, the region known as Bengal was divided into two parts. This division was part of a larger event called the Partition of India. The line that decided where the division would happen was called the Radcliffe Line. After this division, West Bengal became a state in India, and East Bengal, which is now called Bangladesh, became a part of Pakistan.

Pakistan period

Dhaka was important in 1906 when Muslim leaders met to form a party. They believed the British would protect their interests. Elections started in the late 1800s, but only a few people could vote. Later, more people were allowed to vote, but everyone could not vote. In 1916, Muslims and others agreed to separate voting, which upset many Bengalis.

Until 1920, elections did not involve parties. When parties were allowed, independent candidates still mattered. In 1937, no party could govern alone. A mix of parties formed a government. Later, conflicts arose over war decisions and leadership, leading to changes in government.

Bengali Language Movement

Main article: Bengali language movement

When Pakistan formed in 1947, it had two parts: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. They were very different. In 1948, Pakistan decided that only Urdu would be the official language. This upset many people in East Pakistan who spoke Bengali. Protests began, and in 1952, police hurt students during a protest. After many years of fighting for their language, Bengali became official in 1956.

Politics: 1954–1971

The events of 1952 made people in East Pakistan leave the Muslim League. In 1954, a new group won the elections. Differences grew between East and West Pakistan. West Pakistan had more money and power, while East Pakistan felt left out. By the 1960s, East Pakistan wanted more control over its own affairs.

In 1966, a leader named Sheikh Mujibur Rahman suggested East Pakistan should have more control. This caused big debates. In 1970, elections gave East Pakistan many seats, but talks about the country's future failed. Tensions rose, and leaders prepared for possible independence.

Independence movement

Main article: Bangladesh Liberation War

In early 1971, elections showed East Pakistan wanted more freedom. Talks between leaders failed, and in March 1971, the Pakistani army attacked. Leaders declared independence, and many people joined the fight. India helped the freedom fighters. After months of fighting, Pakistan’s army surrendered on December 16, 1971, and Bangladesh was born.

Pakistani capitulation and aftermath

Main article: Surrender of Pakistan

On December 16, 1971, Pakistan’s army in East Pakistan surrendered, and Bangladesh became independent. Many Pakistani soldiers gave up, and Bangladesh started as a new country. India and Pakistan signed agreements to keep peace. The number of people who suffered during the war is still debated today.

People's Republic of Bangladesh

The history of Bangladesh begins thousands of years ago. Early on, the area was ruled by Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms fighting for control of the Bengal region. In the 8th century, Islam arrived and became more common by the 13th century.

Constitution, early democracy and socialism

Provisional Government

The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was the country’s first government, formed in Mujibnagar on 17 April 1971. It declared independence and created an interim constitution with principles of equality, human dignity, and social justice. Its prime minister was Tajuddin Ahmad, and military chief of staff was M A G Osmani. Other key members included Syed Nazrul Islam and Muhammad Mansur Ali.

Neighboring India supported the Provisional Government with diplomacy, economy, and military aid. The Indian military helped in the final weeks of the war in December 1971, leading to Pakistan’s surrender.

Sheikh Mujib administration

After independence, the left-wing Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, formed the government. Rahman became the nation’s second prime minister on 12 January 1972 and is remembered as a hero and founding father. His government focused on building the nation using secular Bengali principles. The original Constitution of Bangladesh, created by Kamal Hossain, set up a liberal democratic parliamentary republic with socialist influences in 1972.

Domestically, Rahman’s rule became more authoritarian. An insurgency by the radical socialist Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal and protests by pro-business and conservative groups caused tension. Rahman declared a state of emergency in 1974 to address mismanagement and corruption. He created the para-military Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, which faced accusations of human rights abuses.

Economically, Rahman started a large nationalisation program that did not work as planned. Aid from the Soviet Union and India also did not arrive as expected. The Bangladesh famine of 1974 was a major economic and humanitarian crisis.

In January 1975, Sheikh Mujib took on the presidency with extra powers, ending the parliamentary system and creating a one-party state. Various political parties merged into the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL). Most newspapers were banned. Economic struggles led to widespread dissatisfaction. On 15 August 1975, a group of junior army officers assassinated Sheikh Mujib.

Military coups and presidential regimes

First martial law and Zia administration

After the coup, Vice-President Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad became president and declared martial law. He reorganised the military leadership and imprisoned some of Sheikh Mujib’s close allies, who were later killed to prevent a counter-coup.

The counter-coup, led by Brigadier General Khaled Mosharraf, overthrew Ahmad. On 6 November 1975, Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem became president. Mosharraf was killed in a mutiny led by Abu Taher. Army chief Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman emerged as the most powerful figure.

Zia became president on 21 April 1977, forming the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). Parliamentary elections in 1979 gave the BNP a large majority, with the Awami League as the main opposition.

Zia restored free markets, redefined socialism in the constitution, and focused foreign policy on Muslim-majority countries and regional cooperation in South Asia. Bangladesh saw rapid economic growth under Zia. He faced many mutinies and coup attempts, and was assassinated in 1981 by troops loyal to Major General Abul Manzoor.

Sattar administration

Zia was succeeded by Vice-President Abdus Sattar, who won the 1981 presidential election. However, a coup in 1982 removed Sattar from power.

Second martial law and Ershad administration

Sattar was replaced by Chief Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury. Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad declared martial law and became Chief Martial Law Administrator. He later became president in 1983.

Under Ershad, Bangladesh’s foreign policy shifted towards the anti-Soviet bloc. The government implemented administrative reforms, dividing the country into sixty-four districts and creating the upazila system.

Ershad privatised much of the state-owned economy and encouraged private investment. Political parties and trade unions were banned, with severe penalties for corruption and agitation. Ershad sought public support through a national referendum in March 1985 and won easily, though turnout was low. He held local elections later that year, with pro-government candidates winning most positions.

Political rights were restored in early 1986, and the Jatiya Party (Ershad) was formed. Despite opposition boycotts, parliamentary elections were held in 1986, with the Jatiya Party winning a modest majority. Ershad resigned from the military and ran for president in 1986, winning with 84% of the vote.

In November 1986, Ershad’s government passed a constitutional amendment protecting him and his regime from prosecution for actions taken during military rule. Martial law ended on 11 November, and opposition parties took their seats in Parliament.

In July 1987, after passing a controversial bill including military representation on local councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. This led to widespread protests and a state of emergency declared on 27 November. Parliament was dissolved on 6 December, and new elections were scheduled for March 1988.

Despite opposition boycotts, the 1988 parliamentary elections went ahead. The Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament passed several laws, including the eighth amendment to the Constitution in June 1988, which made Islam the state religion, changing the original secular nature of the Constitution.

By 1989, local council elections were seen as fairer, but opposition to Ershad’s rule grew, leading to strikes, protests, and lawlessness.

Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict

The Chittagong Hill Tracts, a mountainous area in southeastern Bangladesh, had autonomy under British rule but lost it under Pakistan, which built the Kaptai Dam, displacing local people. After Bangladesh’s independence, the government adopted a Bengali nationalist constitution that did not recognise ethnic minorities. Manabendra Narayan Larma, a member of parliament from the Hill Tracts, spoke in the Constituent Assembly demanding the use of “Bangladeshi” as the country’s nationality instead of “Bengali.” In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts to settle Bengali people in the area were resisted by the hill tribes, who formed a guerrilla group called Shanti Bahini with support from India. This led the government to militarise the region.

After years of conflict, the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was signed in 1997, granting limited autonomy to the elected council of the three hill districts.

Return of parliamentary republic and Battle of the Begums

First caretaker government (1990–1991)

Ershad resigned due to pressure from the military and international community, as a pro-democracy movement led by Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina gained support across the country.

Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed became acting president and formed the first caretaker government. Ahmed arrested Ershad and organised free and fair elections in 1991.

Khaleda administration (1991–1996)

The centre-right BNP won the 1991 elections with 140 seats but lacked a majority. They formed a government with support from the Islamic party Jamaat-e-Islami, with Khaleda Zia becoming the first female prime minister.

In September 1991, a constitutional referendum transferred executive powers from the President to the Prime Minister, making the President mostly ceremonial. Bangladesh returned to a Parliamentary democracy. Finance Minister Saifur Rahman introduced liberal economic reforms, which were seen as a model in nearby countries.

Controversy over a parliamentary by-election in March 1994 led the opposition to boycott Parliament indefinitely. They began a series of strikes to pressure Khaleda Zia’s government to resign and allow a caretaker government to oversee new elections. Mediation efforts failed, and the opposition resigned from Parliament. They continued protests, marches, and demonstrations to force the government to step down. All major opposition parties, including Sheikh Hasina’s Awami League, boycotted the February 1996 elections.

Khaleda Zia was re-elected in February 1996 in a boycott-tainted vote. Her administration lasted only 12 days before Parliament amended the constitution to allow a neutral caretaker government to conduct new elections in June 1996.

Second caretaker government (1996)

Chief Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman became the first Chief Advisor under the constitutional caretaker government system. President Abdur Rahman Biswas dismissed army chief Lieutenant General Abu Saleh Mohammad Nasim for alleged political activities, leading to a coup attempt. Nasim ordered troops to march towards Dhaka, but the military commander of Savar sided with the president, deploying tanks and suspending ferry services to deter the coup. Nasim was later arrested.

The Chief Advisor held free and fair elections on 12 June 1996. The Awami League became the largest party with 146 seats, followed by the BNP with 116 seats and the Jatiya Party with 32 seats.

Hasina administration (1996–2001)

Sheikh Hasina’s Awami League won 146 of 300 seats in the June 1996 elections, forming a “Government of National Consensus” with Jatiya Party support. International and domestic observers found the elections free and fair. The BNP accused the government of harassing opposition activists. The BNP staged parliamentary walkouts and returned under agreements, only to walk out again.

Hasina’s administration signed the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with India and the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord, earning the UNESCO Peace Prize. She hosted economic summits and focused on energy investments and extradition of her father’s killers. However, she was reluctant to export natural gas.

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties began abstaining from Parliament, leading to increased strikes. A four-party opposition alliance formed in 1999, boycotting elections unless fairness was ensured. The government did not meet their demands, and the opposition boycotted all elections.

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down for a caretaker government to oversee parliamentary elections. Political violence continued to rise leading up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed to respect election results, avoid violent strikes, and allow opposition roles in Parliament.

Third caretaker government (2001)

The caretaker government, led by Chief Advisor Latifur Rahman, managed violence and held a successful parliamentary election on 1 October 2001. The BNP-led coalition won by a landslide, with the BNP winning 193 seats and Jamaat winning 17.

Khaleda administration (2001–2006)

Following the September 11 attacks, Khaleda Zia’s government allowed the United States to use Bangladeshi airports and airspace for operations in Afghanistan. Bangladesh provided relief efforts, and the United States praised Bangladesh as a voice of moderation in the Muslim world. Khaleda developed a strategic partnership with China and signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement.

Despite her pledge and election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, she returned but walked out in 2003 over remarks and the Speaker’s role. The AL returned in 2004 without demands met and attended irregularly before boycotting the 2005 budget session.

Khaleda Zia’s administration saw improved economic growth, corruption allegations, and tensions between secular and conservative forces. High-profile assassinations targeted the Awami League-led opposition. Former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in 2004. The Jamaatul Mujahadeen Bangladesh carried out several attacks in 2005. The League accused the BNP and Jamaat of supporting militancy. Relations with India worsened over allegations of Bangladeshi territory being used by Northeast Indian insurgents.

Fourth caretaker regime (2006–2008)

A major political crisis erupted after the BNP’s term ended, as the Awami League-led coalition demanded a neutral Chief Advisor. Weeks of strikes, protests, and blockades paralysed the country. President Iajuddin Ahmed took on the Chief Advisor role but failed to ease opposition fears of a rigged election. The press accused the president of being influenced by the BNP. Violent protests continued even with military aid to civil administration.

On 11 January 2007, President Ahmed declared a state of emergency and resigned as Chief Advisor under military pressure, particularly from army chief General Moeen U Ahmed. Former central bank governor Fakhruddin Ahmed was appointed Chief Advisor, and the cabinet was reshuffled with technocrats. The military-backed caretaker government launched an anti-corruption drive, arresting over 160 politicians, businessmen, and bureaucrats, including former prime ministers Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina, and Khaleda’s two sons. Student protests in Dhaka University in August 2007 were suppressed by a curfew. Khaleda and Hasina were released in 2008.

The state of emergency lasted two years. The 2008 parliamentary elections saw a landslide victory for the Awami League-led coalition, which also included the Jatiya Party.

Hasina administration (2009–2024)

Within two months of taking office, Sheikh Hasina’s second government faced the BDR Mutiny, which caused military tensions. Hasina dealt with the mutineers and angry military elements. She formed the international crimes tribunal to prosecute surviving Bengali Islamist collaborators of the 1971 genocide. The tribunal faced criticism over fairness and impartiality.

An anti-terror crackdown improved relations with India. Bangladesh and India focused on regional connectivity and trade.

In 2010, the Supreme Court reaffirmed secularism as a fundamental principle in the constitution. The war crimes tribunal mobilised public opinion in favour of secularism, seen in the March 2013 Shahbag protests. In response, a large Islamist mobilisation occurred led by the Hefazat-e-Islam group in May 2013.

Tensions between the League and BNP, called the Battle of the Begums, continued. The Hasina government abolished the caretaker government provision in the constitution through the controversial Fifteenth Amendment, seen by the BNP as an attempt to corrupt the election process in favour of the League.

In 2013, the hard-line, right-wing Islamic party Jamaat-e-Islami was banned from registering and contesting elections by the High Court, citing their charter violated the constitution. Street violence between the League, BNP, and Jamaat increased before the general election. In 2014, the elections were boycotted by the BNP. The elections were criticised by the United States, United Kingdom, European Union, and the United Nations. Sheikh Hasina was sworn in for a third term as prime minister.

In 2015 and 2016, Bangladesh saw increasing assassinations of minorities and secularists. The country’s worst terrorist attack in July 2016 saw 20 people killed when gunmen sieged an upmarket restaurant. The Islamic State of Iraq and Levant claimed responsibility for many attacks, though the Hasina government believed local terror groups were more likely responsible. Since this attack, the government took stricter measures against extremists, leading to reduced attacks and fatalities.

In 2017, the country faced a new challenge with incoming Rohingya refugees. Starting in August 2017, Myanmar security forces began “clearance operations” against the Rohingya in northern Rakhine state—killing thousands, brutalising many more, and driving hundreds of thousands out of the country into Bangladesh. In the first four weeks, over 400,000 Rohingya refugees fled to Bangladesh, creating a major humanitarian crisis. The governments of Myanmar and Bangladesh signed a memorandum of understanding in November 2017 for the repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Rakhine State. However, by the end of the decade, over 740,000 refugees remained in Bangladesh, straining the country’s economy and infrastructure.

The 2018 General elections brought another landslide victory for the Awami League led by Sheikh Hasina. While the opposition was weak due to leaders in jail or exile, the elections were marred by violence and claims of vote rigging. This gave the Awami League stability to complete key infrastructure projects including the Padma Bridge and the Dhaka Metro Rail.

Anti-government protests began in Bangladesh on 10 December 2022. In December 2022, tens of thousands marched in Dhaka demanding the resignation of Sheikh Hasina.

In January 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured her fourth straight term in Bangladesh’s controversial general election, boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party.

The fall of Hasina administration (2024)

In June 2024, protests began in response to the Supreme Court reinstating a 30% quota for government jobs for descendants of freedom fighters, reversing a government decision made after the 2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement. Students felt they had limited opportunities based on merit. The protest, which started over the government job quota system, spread across the country due to the government’s violent response and growing dissatisfaction with an oppressive government. Other issues included an economic downturn, corruption, human rights violations, and lack of democratic channels for change.

On 3 August 2024, coordinators of the Anti-discrimination Students Movement announced a demand for resignation and called for “comprehensive non-cooperation.” The next day, violent clashes broke out, resulting in 97 deaths, including students. The coordinators called for a long march to Dhaka to force Hasina out of power on 5 August. That day, a large crowd of protesters moved through the capital. At 2:30 p.m. BST, Sheikh Hasina resigned and fled to India.

On 5 August, the chief of army staff, Waker-uz-Zaman, convened a meeting with representatives from the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Jatiya Party (Ershad), and Jamaat-e-Islami and called for the creation of an interim government within 48 hours, excluding the Awami League. Reports indicated that Muhammad Yunus, a Nobel laureate, had been approached to head the interim government. Yunus accepted the advisory role. Waker-uz-Zaman pledged a military investigation into the violence and ordered security forces not to fire on crowds.