History of Mexico

The history of Mexico is a long and rich story that began over 13,000 years ago with early people living as hunter-gatherers. Central and southern Mexico, a region known as Mesoamerica, became home to amazing civilizations that created writing systems to keep records of their lives and history. One of these civilizations was the Maya, whose writing is the only one from the time before Europeans arrived that we can fully understand today.

In the early 1500s, Spanish explorers arrived and began the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. This brought big changes to Mexico, including new rulers, a new religion, and many European traditions. After many years of struggle, Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, starting a new chapter in its story.

Mexico faced many challenges in the 1800s, such as wars, leadership fights, and invasions from other countries. During this time, leaders tried to create fairer laws and separate the government from religious control. By the late 1800s, Mexico grew economically but also faced unfair treatment of many people, which helped lead to a big revolution in 1910. This revolution brought important changes to the country's government and society.

In more recent times, Mexico has gone through periods of economic change, political shifts, and struggles with inequality and safety issues. Despite these challenges, Mexico continues to work toward a better future for all its people.

Pre-Columbian civilizations

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico

Large and complex civilizations developed in central and southern Mexico, a region known as Mesoamerica. These civilizations created big cities, built impressive temples and palaces, and had societies split between leaders and everyday people. They grew crops like corn, squash, and beans, and traded with each other.

Mesoamerican people had rich beliefs and created writing systems to record their histories. They valued materials like jade and symbols such as the jaguar in their spiritual life. Even though many of their books were lost, some still exist and help us learn about their past.

Major civilizations

Many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed for power in ancient Mexico. Five major civilizations stood out: the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Aztec. These civilizations spread their influence across Mexico and beyond through trade, art, politics, technology, and religion. Over thousands of years, they made alliances and sometimes fought, but all felt the impact of these powerful cultures.

The Olmec were the first along Mexico's Atlantic coast, creating a unique style of art and perhaps inventing writing. The Maya developed kings and built big temples, supporting millions of people at their height. Teotihuacan grew into one of the world's largest cities with huge pyramids and colorful murals. The Toltec were known for their skills and were seen as great thinkers by later cultures. Finally, the Aztec built the amazing city of Tenochtitlan and ruled a huge empire, becoming one of the world's largest cities before new powers arrived.

Main article: Aztec Empire

Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

After the first Europeans arrived in Mexico, more Spanish explorers followed. In 1519, a leader named Hernán Cortés landed on the coast. He and his men met the Aztec people, who lived in a big city called Tenochtitlan. The Spanish and the Aztecs fought, and in 1521, the city was mostly destroyed.

The Spanish brought diseases like smallpox, which many native people had never seen before. This made many people very sick. The Spanish also changed many rules and ways of life in Mexico, introducing their own religion and new systems for work.

New Spain

Main articles: New Spain and Spanish Empire

The capture of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, began a long period when Mexico was called "New Spain." For about 300 years, a leader called a viceroy ruled the land for the king of Spain. Mexico had many people and lots of valuable silver, which made Spain very powerful in Europe. The Spanish created special coins that were used all over the world.

Not all of Mexico was taken over right away. It took many years for the Spanish to control areas like the Mayan lands in the south and parts of what is now Central America. In the north, groups like the Tlaxcalans fought hard against the Spanish. These areas were important because of the silver mines there.

The Spanish system made some people work for them without choice. This system was called the encomienda. Over time, people of different backgrounds — European, African, and indigenous — mixed together, creating a new group called mestizos, who now make up most of Mexico’s population.

Colonial period (1521–1808)

Main articles: New Spain and Spanish Empire

See also: History of Mexico City

Mexico was a very important part of the Spanish Empire. During the 1500s, Spain focused on areas where many people already lived and had their own cultures. These people could work and learn new religions. The Spanish did not try to settle in the dry northern areas, which are now part of the United States, until much later.

The Spanish set up laws and ways to govern Mexico. They divided people into groups based on their background. Those born in Spain had the most power and could hold important jobs. People of Spanish background born in Mexico, called criollos, were often wealthy but had less power. Mestizos, people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry, had even less power. The poorest were the indigenous people, who were often forced to work on farms and ranches owned by the Spanish and criollos. Some Africans were also brought to Mexico and had very little power. Mexico sent a lot of money to help run the Spanish Empire.

Only two ports were open for trade with other countries — Veracruz on the Atlantic Ocean and Acapulco on the Pacific Ocean. This was to protect Mexico from attacks and to keep the Spanish king's money safe.

The Spanish encouraged learning. Mexico had the first primary school in the Americas in 1523, the first university in 1551, and the first printing press in 1524. Many important buildings, like cathedrals and cities, were built during this time. New foods and traditions, such as mariachi music and Mexican cuisine, began during this period. By the early 1800s, many people in Mexico wanted to be independent from Spain. A priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla started a movement to fight for freedom. He is remembered as a very important leader in Mexico's history.

Independence era (1808–1829)

This time was full of big changes that ended 300 years of Spanish rule in Mexico. Things started to shift when events in Spain during the Peninsular War and the Trienio Liberal created new opportunities. Spanish officers overthrew King Ferdinand VII, and this led to new leaders in Mexico seeking independence.

Conservative leaders in New Spain changed their minds and wanted independence after Spain’s new government changed its constitution. Army officer Agustín de Iturbide decided to support independence and worked with leader Vicente Guerrero. Together, they formed the Army of the Three Guarantees, and within six months, royal rule ended, and Mexico became independent.

Iturbide tried to become emperor, but his strict rule made many unhappy. In 1823, he was overthrown, and Mexico became a federated republic with a new constitution in 1824. General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president, but the government was unstable, with leaders changing often through force rather than fair elections. Vicente Guerrero served briefly as president in 1829 but was later removed by his opponents. The years after independence were difficult, with ongoing political fights, damage to silver mines, and troubled trade.

The Age of Santa Anna (1829–1854)

Political instability

Main article: Centralist Republic of Mexico

After Mexico gained independence, strong leaders called military leaders controlled the country. This time is known as the "Age of Santa Anna" because of General and politician Antonio López de Santa Anna. Liberals asked Santa Anna to remove the conservative President Anastasio Bustamante. After doing this, he made General Manuel Gómez Pedraza president because he won an election in 1828. Santa Anna became president in 1832 and served many times over the years. He changed his political ideas often. In 1834, he removed the country's rules that let states have power, which caused protests in Yucatán and Coahuila y Tejas. Both areas wanted to be separate from Mexico. After talks and Santa Anna's army moving in, Yucatán agreed to stay part of Mexico. But Santa Anna's army then went to deal with the northern area.

The people in Tejas said they were independent from Mexico on March 2, 1836, at Washington-on-the-Brazos. They were led mostly by people from the United States. At the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, soldiers from Tejas defeated the Mexican army and caught General Santa Anna. The Mexican government did not accept that Texas was independent.

Comanche conflict

The northern parts of Mexico had trouble because of attacks by the Comanche people. These attacks made it hard for people to live there, and Mexico tried to get more settlers to move to the area. They even made a deal with people from the United States to live in Comanche lands, called the Comancheria. Mexico also had problems with the Apache people, who were getting guns from American traders.

Texas Independence

See also: Texas Revolution

After Mexico became independent, the government gave large pieces of land in Coahuila y Tejas to families from the United States. They were supposed to follow Mexican rules, but many did not. Mexico thought these settlers would help protect the area from Comanche attacks and stop the United States from moving west, but this did not work. The settlers often lived far away from the attack areas and used Mexico's inability to stop the attacks as a reason to want independence.

The fight for Texas' independence, called the Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence, started on October 2, 1835, and ended on April 21, 1836. It began because of changes made to Mexico's rules by President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The war ended with a big battle at the Battle of San Jacinto, where Sam Houston led the army from Texas to win against part of the Mexican Army under Santa Anna, who was captured. This led to the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845, the United States made Texas a state.

Mexican-American War (1846–1848)

Main article: Mexican–American War

When Mexico attacked a group of U.S. soldiers in a place where both countries said it belonged, the United States declared war on May 13, 1846; Mexico did the same on May 23. The Mexican–American War happened in two places: one aimed at California, and the other at getting to Mexico City.

In March 1847, U.S. President James K. Polk sent soldiers led by General Winfield Scott to a city named Veracruz. After a fight, the city surrendered. Scott moved his soldiers toward Mexico City. Santa Anna tried to stop them but was defeated at the Battle of Cerro Gordo. Scott continued to Puebla, which gave up without fighting. After the Battle of Chapultepec on September 13, 1847, Mexico City was taken over; Scott became its leader. The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which made Mexico sell its northern lands to the United States for money. Even after this loss, Santa Anna stayed in power and later sold more land to the United States in the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. This made many Mexicans angry, and finally, people rebelled against Santa Anna in 1854, and he had to leave the country. Liberals took over and started making changes they wanted.

Struggle between liberals and conservatives, 1855–1876

Main articles: La Reforma and Second Mexican Empire

After Santa Anna was removed from power in the Plan of Ayutla, liberals tried to bring many changes to Mexico. They wanted new laws and a new constitution to guide the country. During this time, Mexico had a lot of trouble, including civil war and when other countries got involved. Eventually, a ruler named Maximilian of Mexico was put in charge, but this did not last. By 1867, the old republic was restored, and there was a period of calm, though the economy did not grow well during the Restored Republic.

The liberals believed strongly in ideas like republicanism and wanted to reduce the power of the Church in areas like schools and land. They also wanted to end special rights for indigenous groups over their land. This led to many conflicts and battles between different groups in Mexico.

Ignacio Comonfort, a leader who tried to please both sides, became president but could not keep everyone happy. In 1857, a new constitution was created that limited the power of leaders, reduced the Church’s influence, and allowed more people to vote. However, many people did not like this, including the army and Church leaders, leading to a fight known as the War of Reform.

This war made divisions in the country even stronger. The fighting ended when liberal leader Benito Juárez took control. But then in 1862, France invaded Mexico to take control and set up their own ruler, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico.

The French won after a famous battle but faced many problems. The United States, after its own civil war, helped push the French to leave. In 1867, Maximilian was captured and the republic was restored under Juárez, who continued to lead until he passed away in 1872 and was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada.

Porfiriato (1876–1910)

Main articles: Porfirio Díaz and Porfiriato

The time when Porfirio Díaz led Mexico from 1876 to 1911 focused on creating order, stopping violence, and making the country more modern. Díaz took power in a coup in 1876 and ruled with the help of rich landowners. He worked closely with the United States and Great Britain, which brought more money into the country, especially for mining. People’s lives generally improved, but the rich benefited more than the poor. Díaz was eventually removed from power by the Mexican Revolution in 1911 and died while living far away from Mexico.

This time of growth is called the Porfiriato. As old ways changed, people in cities talked about what it meant to be Mexican, moving away from indigenous traditions and embracing French culture after French forces left Mexico. Cities were redesigned with new buildings inspired by Western Europe, like the Beaux-Arts style, to show a break from the past. One famous building was the Federal Legislative Palace, built between 1897 and 1910.

Díaz stayed in power by changing election results and controlling newspapers. He stopped rivals from gaining too much support and reduced banditry on roads with a special police force called the "Rurales." He kept a good relationship with the Catholic Church by not enforcing laws that limited its power. The country’s roads, health, railways, mining, and money improved with more foreign money and strong government leadership. After many years of little growth, Mexico’s economy grew each year during the Porfiriato.

Díaz made the army smaller and better trained. However, he became less open to talking with younger leaders. In 1908, he said he would leave office in 1911, which made many people think he was leaving and that new leaders needed to be chosen. He still tried to stay in power and was even planning a meeting with William Taft, the president of the United States, in El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, in October 1909. Díaz was elected again in a disputed vote but was removed from power in 1911 and sent to live in France.

A man named José Yves Limantour helped Mexico’s money situation by bringing in more foreign money and keeping the budget balanced. But the cost of food kept rising, which made poor people unhappy. An economic problem in the United States in 1907 hurt Mexico’s mining and caused a downturn in the economy from 1908 to 1909.

Leaders wanted schools to be more modern and not controlled by the Catholic Church. They changed elementary schools to be the same everywhere, focusing on being on time and healthy. In 1910, the National University opened.

In areas south of Mexico City, changes brought by more people, railways, and land being owned by a few families caused tension. After Díaz left, people in these areas rebelled against local leaders.

Revolution of 1910–1920

Main article: Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution was a time of big changes in Mexico from 1910 to 1920. It started when Francisco I. Madero called for people to fight against the government. Many people, including leaders like Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, joined the fight for better laws and rights.

The revolution led to a new constitution in 1917 that changed many rules in Mexico. This constitution helped workers and gave land to farmers. It also changed how leaders could be chosen. The revolution ended with General Álvaro Obregón winning an election in 1920.

Consolidation of revolution, 1920–1940

Northern revolutionary generals as presidents

Three leaders from the north, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, and Adolfo de la Huerta, were very important in Mexico during the 1920s. They came from a dry, open area where life was tough and different from the crowded, religious villages in central Mexico. Obregón was the most powerful of the three and a great leader in the army. They were good at politics and managing things. When they were in charge, they tried to help workers and improve education and farming land.

Obregón presidency, 1920–1924

Main article: Álvaro Obregón

Obregón, Calles, and de la Huerta worked together to take control from another leader in 1920. Then Obregón became president. During his time as president, he tried to help different groups in Mexico, except for some very strict religious leaders and rich landowners. He worked on helping workers join politics, improving schools, and changing land rules. He also wanted to make sure the government was strong and calm after years of fighting.

Calles presidency, 1924–1928

Main article: Plutarco Elías Calles

In 1924, Calles became president. He promised to help farmers, give fair treatment, improve schools, and support workers. However, during his time, there was a big problem with religious groups who did not agree with the new rules about religion.

Cristero War (1926–1929)

Main article: Cristero War

The Cristero War happened because some people did not like the new rules about religion. They fought against the government, but the problem was solved with help from another country. The rules stayed, but the government did not try very hard to make everyone follow them.

Maximato and the Formation of the Ruling Party

Main articles: Institutional Revolutionary Party and Maximato

After Calles stopped being president in 1928, there was some confusion about who would lead next. Calles created a big group called the National Revolutionary Party to help manage the country better. This group later became the Institutional Revolutionary Party and stayed in charge for many years.

Revitalization of the revolution under Cárdenas

Main article: Lázaro Cárdenas

Lázaro Cárdenas became president in 1934. He made sure the big group stayed strong and did many things to help the country, like taking control of the oil industry and helping farmers. He also sent away a leader who wanted too much power, so the army did not control things anymore.

"Revolution to evolution", 1940–1970

Most historians see the year 1940 as a turning point. It marked the end of a time of military fighting and the start of a new period of peace and growth.

Manuel Ávila Camacho presidency and World War II

Main article: Manuel Avila Camacho

Manuel Ávila Camacho led Mexico during World War II. He helped Mexico move from a time of big changes to a more stable time under a group called the PRI, which lasted until the year 2000. During the war, Mexico and the United States became closer friends. Even before the war began, Mexico supported the United States.

Mexico cut ties with Germany and helped the United States in many ways. Mexico's most important help came from selling things like oil and sending workers. When German submarines attacked Mexican oil ships, Mexico joined the war on the side of the Allies on May 30, 1942. One famous group of Mexican soldiers, the Escuadrón 201, fought in the Philippines with the United States.

Economic "miracle" (1940–1970)

Main article: Mexican Miracle

From 1940 to 1970, Mexico grew very quickly. This time is often called the Mexican Miracle. One big reason for this growth was that the country was peaceful and stable. Mexico made friends with the United States during World War II, which helped its economy.

After the war, Mexico focused on building factories and making things. The government helped by giving money and support. Many American companies also helped. Mexico grew a lot during this time, especially in cities. Farms also grew, especially with new seeds that helped grow more food.

1970–1994

Economic crises of 1976 and 1982

After World War II, Mexico's government led by the PRI party helped the country grow, but problems began to appear. In the late 1960s, there was unrest, and in 1968, a sad event happened in Tlatelolco. Then, in 1976 and again in 1982, Mexico faced big economic problems. The government took control of the banks to try to fix things, but the economy still struggled. The value of Mexico's money, called the peso, dropped a lot, and this became a pattern near the end of each president's time in office.

1985 earthquake

Main article: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

On September 19, 1985, a very strong earthquake hit near Michoacán and caused big damage in Mexico City. Many buildings fell, and thousands of people sadly lost their lives. People felt angry because the government's help after the earthquake was not well organized, and this made people question the PRI party more than before.

Changing political landscape 1970–1990

In the 1980s, more people started to question the PRI party's control over the government. A group called the National Action Party (PAN), which started in 1939, began to get more support, especially in northern Mexico. In 1986, PAN almost won a big election in Chihuahua, but the PRI used some unfair methods to keep control.

1988 Presidential election

In the 1988 election, three main leaders ran: Carlos Salinas de Gortari for the PRI, Cuauhtemoc Cárdenas who left PRI to start a new group, and Manuel Clouthier for PAN. There were many problems during the vote counting, and the computers stopped working for a while. When they started again, Salinas was said to have won by a very small amount, but many people thought Cárdenas actually won. Even though there were unfair things, Cárdenas did not ask for protests, which helped avoid big trouble. Later, it was said that the election results were not honest. Salinas became president and made big changes to improve Mexico's economy, including signing a trade agreement with the United States and Canada in 1994.

Contemporary Mexico

President Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000)

In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo faced a big money problem when the value of Mexico’s money dropped quickly. There were protests in Mexico City, and the military stayed ready. Zedillo made changes to help the economy get stronger again.

The United States helped Mexico by lending money, and by 1996, Mexico’s money got stronger. By 1997, Mexico paid back all the loans early.

Zedillo also made changes to make elections fairer.

NAFTA and USMCA (1994–present)

Main articles: North American Free Trade Agreement and United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement

On January 1, 1994, Mexico joined the North American Free Trade Agreement with the United States and Canada.

Mexico has a busy economy with both new and older industries. It has trade deals with over 50 countries.

End of PRI rule in 2000

The PRI party ruled Mexico for many years, but lost power in the 1980s.

President Vicente Fox Quesada (2000–2006)

See also: Fox administration

Vicente Fox Quesada became president in 2000, ending 71 years of PRI rule. He wanted to improve roads, update laws, and let private companies help with energy. But he had trouble getting things done because his party didn’t have enough votes in Congress.

Fox worked to bring more visitors and business to Mexico and tried to improve friendship with the United States.

President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa (2006–2012)

See also: 2006 Mexican general election

Felipe Calderón Hinojosa became president after a very close vote. He raised salaries for police and soldiers.

He also tried to make changes to help Mexico’s economy grow, but some people said he didn’t do enough about jobs and unfair money matters.

President Enrique Peña Nieto (2012–2018)

See also: Enrique Peña Nieto

On July 1, 2012, Enrique Peña Nieto was elected president. He brought back the PRI party to power after 12 years.

He worked with other parties to make changes in schools, banks, taxes, and communication. But some changes caused arguments, especially about letting private companies work in oil.

A sad event happened in 2014 when 43 students went missing, showing problems with safety and fairness in the country.

President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (2018–2024)

See also: Andrés Manuel López Obrador, 2019–2020 Mexico–Bolivia diplomatic crisis, and 2024 raid on the Mexican embassy in Ecuador

On July 1, 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador was elected president. He focused on helping poor people and fighting unfairness.

He became president in December 2018, just as a big sickness called COVID-19 started. He worked to help Mexico during this hard time.

COVID-19 pandemic (2020–22)

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico

From January 2020 to March 2022, Mexico faced the COVID-19 sickness, which made many people very ill. The country worked hard to help people get medicine and vaccines.

President Claudia Sheinbaum (2024–)

Claudia Sheinbaum won the election in 2024 and became Mexico’s first woman president in October. She was sworn in on October 1, 2024.